3D Reflection Research Articles

Azimuthal amplitude variation with offset analysis of physical modeling data acquired over an azimuthally anisotropic medium

We evaluated a quantitative amplitude analysis of 3D physical model reflection data acquired over an experimental phenolic layer that modeled a fractured medium with one set of vertical fractures. The phenolic layer was overlain by two isotropic layers, the uppermost being water, and the data acquisition was designed to avoid the interference of the primary and ghost events. The elastic stiffness coefficients and hence the anisotropy of the phenolic layer were known in advance from a previous traveltime analysis. The reflection amplitudes from the top of the phenolic layer required corrections to make them suitable for an amplitude study. In addition to the usual amplitude corrections applied to seismic field data, a directivity correction specific to the physical model transducers was applied. The corrected amplitudes along different azimuths showed a clear azimuthal variation caused by the phenolic layer and agreed with amplitudes predicted theoretically. An amplitude variation with angle and azimuth inversion was performed for horizontal transverse isotropy (HTI) parameters of the phenolic layer. We determined from the inversion results that from the azimuthally varying P-wave reflectivity response, it was possible to estimate HTI parameters that compared favorably to those obtained previously by a traveltime analysis. This result made it possible to compute the S-wave splitting parameter [Formula: see text] (historically determined from S-wave data and directly related to fracture density) from a quantitative analysis of the PP data.

Rift processes in the Westralian Superbasin, North West Shelf, Australia: insights from 2D deep reflection seismic interpretation and potential fields modelling

Acquisition of long-offset (8–10 km), long-record length (12–18 sec), 2D reflection seismic and ship-borne potential fields data (WestraliaSpan by Ion/GXT and New Dawn by PGS) on the North West Shelf of Australia provide the opportunity to study rift processes in the context of modern models for rifted margins (Manatschal, 2004). Basement and Moho surfaces were interpreted on seismic reflection data. Refraction models from Geoscience Australia constrain Moho depth and initial densities for gravity modelling through standard velocity-density transformation. 2D joint inversion of seismic reflection and gravity data for Moho depth and basement density constrain depth to basement on seismic. 2D gravity and magnetic intensity forward modelling of key seismic lines constrain basement thickness, type and density. Late Permian and Jurassic-Early Cretaceous rift zones were mapped on seismic reflection data and constrained further by inversion and forward modelling of potential fields data. The Westralian Superbasin formed as a marginal basin in Eastern Gondwana during the Late Permian rifting of the Sibumasu terrane. Crustal necking was localised along mechanically-weak Proterozoic suture belts or Early Paleozoic sedimentary basins (such as Paterson and Canning). Mechanically-strong cratons (such as Pilbara and Kimberley) remained intact, resulting in necking and hyper-extension at their edges. Late Permian hyper-extended areas (such as Exmouth Plateau) behaved as mechanically-strong blocks during the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous continental break-up. Late Permian necking zones were reactivated as failed-rift basins and localised the deposition of the Jurassic oil-prone source rocks that have generated much of the oil discovered on the North West Shelf.

Towards an improved geological interpretation of airborne electromagnetic data: a case study from the Cuxhaven tunnel valley and its Neogene host sediments (northwest Germany)

AbstractAirborne electromagnetics (AEM) is an effective technique for geophysical investigations of the shallow subsurface and has successfully been applied in various geological settings to analyse the depositional architecture of sedimentary systems for groundwater and environmental purposes. However, interpretation of AEM data is often restricted to 1D inversion results imaged on resistivity maps and vertical resistivity sections. The integration of geophysical data based on AEM surveys with geological data is often missing and this deficiency can lead to uncertainties in the interpretation process. The aim of this study is to provide an improved methodology for the interpretation of AEM data and the construction of more realistic 3D geological subsurface models. This is achieved by the development of an integrated workflow and 3D modelling approaches based on combining different geophysical and geological data sets (frequency-domain helicopter-borne electromagnetic data (HFEM), time-domain helicopter-borne electromagnetic data (HTEM), three 2D reflection seismic sections and 488 borehole logs). We used 1D inversion results gained from both HFEM and HTEM surveys and applied a 3D resistivity gridding procedure based on geostatistical analyses and interpolation techniques to create continuous 3D resistivity grids. Subsequently, geological interpretations have been performed by combining with, and validation against, borehole and reflection seismic data. To verify the modelling results and to identify uncertainties of AEM inversions and interpretation, we compared the apparent resistivity values of the constructed 3D geological subsurface models with those of AEM field measurements. Our methodology is applied to a test site near Cuxhaven, northwest Germany, where Neogene sediments are incised by a Pleistocene tunnel valley. The Neogene succession is subdivided by four unconformities and consists of fine-grained shelf to marginal marine deposits. At the end of the Miocene an incised valley was formed and filled with Pliocene delta deposits, probably indicating a palaeo-course of the River Weser or Elbe. The Middle Pleistocene (Elsterian) tunnel valley is up to 350 m deep, 0.8–2 km wide, and incised into the Neogene succession. The unconsolidated fill of the Late Miocene to Pliocene incised valley probably formed a preferred pathway for the Pleistocene meltwater flows, favouring the incision. Based on the 3D AEM resistivity model the tunnel-valley fills could be imaged in high detail. They consist of a complex sedimentary succession with alternating fine- and coarse-grained Elsterian meltwater deposits, overlain by glaciolacustrine (Lauenburg Clay Complex) and marine Holsteinian interglacial deposits. The applied approaches and results show a reliable methodology, especially for future investigations of similar geological settings. The 3D resistivity models clearly allow a distinction to be made between different lithologies and enables the detection of major bounding surfaces and architectural elements.

레이더기반 다중센서활용 강수추정기술의 개발

Although the Radar-AWS Rainrate (RAR) calculation system operated by Korea Meteorological Administration estimated precipitation using 2-dimensional composite components of single polarization radars, this system has several limitations in estimating the precipitation accurately. To to overcome limitations of the RAR system, the Korea Meteorological Administration developed and operated the RMQ (Radar-based Multi-sensor Quantitative Precipitation Estimation) system, the improved version of NMQ (National Mosaic and Multi-sensor Quantitative Precipitation Estimation) system of NSSL (National Severe Storms Laboratory) for the Korean Peninsula. This study introduced the RMQ system domestically for the first time and verified the precipitation estimation performance of the RMQ system. The RMQ system consists of 4 main parts as the process of handling the single radar data, merging 3D reflectivity, QPE, and displaying result images. The first process (handling of the single radar data) has the pre-process of a radar data (transformation of data format and quality control), the production of a vertical profile of reflectivity and the correction of bright-band, and the conduction of hydrid scan reflectivity. The next process (merger of 3D reflectivity) produces the 3D composite reflectivity field after correcting the quality controlled single radar reflectivity. The QPE process classifies the precipitation types using multi-sensor information and estimates quantitative precipitation using several Z-R relationships which are proper for precipitation types. This process also corrects the precipitation using the AWS position with local gauge correction technique. The last process displays the final results transformed into images in the web-site. This study also estimated the accuracy of the RMQ system with five events in 2012 summer season and compared the results of the RAR (Radar-AWS Rainrate) and RMQ systems. The RMQ system (<TEX>$2.36mm\;hr^{-1}$</TEX> in RMSE on average) is superior to the RAR system (<TEX>$8.33mm\;hr^{-1}$</TEX> in RMSE) and improved by 73.25% in RMSE and 25.56% in correlation coefficient on average. The precipitation composite field images produced by the RMQ system are almost identical to the AWS (Automatic Weather Statioin) images. Therefore, the RMQ system has contributed to improve the accuracy of precipitation estimation using weather radars and operation of the RMQ system in the work field in future enables to cope with the extreme weather conditions actively.

Seismic stratigraphy and geomorphology of a tide or wave dominated shelf-edge delta (NW Australia): Process-based classification from 3D seismic attributes and implications for the prediction of deep-water sands

Shelf-edge deltas (SEDs) forming during periods of relative sea level fall and lowstand are generally efficient in transferring sediments to the slope and basins, and their identification in subsurface data is often considered a good indication of coeval development of slope and basin-floor turbidite reservoirs. This study investigates the seismic stratigraphic evolution of a forced-regressive and normal regressive shelf-edge delta (Bonaparte SED) that accumulated on the edge of the NW Australian margin during the late Quaternary. High resolution 2D and 3D reflection seismic data allow reconstruction of the main episodes of delta progradation and understanding of the extrinsic and intrinsic controls on their deposition. The lack of a significant turbidite system forming off the shelf-edge delta throughout the Quaternary is a striking feature of the Bonaparte SED. Instead, slope sedimentation is dominated by the accumulation of plume-derived mud belts and their reworking through mass-transport processes. Seismic geomorphology permits interpretation of the process regime of the youngest shelf-edge depocentre by applying a new process-based shallow-marine classification scheme to the 3D seismic attribute data. Results suggest either a tide or wave dominated delta with fluvial processes being of tertiary significance. A tide or wave-dominated, fluvial-affected shelf-edge delta classification is consistent with the paleogeographical reconstruction of the margin during the last glacial maximum (ca. 25 ka BP). The comparison of this mixed-process shelf-edge delta and starved slope system with a fluvial-dominated counterpart with significant sandy slope deposits emphasizes the potential of assessing the process regime of shelf-edge deltas as a rapid, first approach for predicting the presence or absence of coeval slope and basin-floor reservoirs.

Impact and implications of the Afro-Eurasian collision south of Cyprus from reflection seismic data

Abstract The Cyprus Arc in the Eastern Mediterranean represents the active collision front between the African and Eurasian (Anatolian) Plates. Along the Cyprus Arc, the Eratosthenes Seamount is believed to have been blocking the northward motion of the African Plate since the Late Pliocene–Early Pleistocene. Based on a dense grid of 2D reflection seismic profiles covering the Eratosthenes Seamount and western Levant Basin offshore Cyprus, new observations regarding the Cyprus Arc collision front at the triple transition zone Eratosthenes Seamount–Levant Basin–Hecataeus Rise are presented. The data show that the Levant Basin is filled with ~ 10 km of sediments of Early Mesozoic (probably Jurassic) to Plio-Quaternary age with only a localized deformation affecting the Miocene–Oligocene rock units. The sediments onlap directly against the steep eastern flank of the Eratosthenes Seamount to the west and the southern flank of the Hecataeus Rise to the north. The sediments show no deformation that could be associated with collision and are undeformed even very close to the two prominent structures. Pinching out of the Base Miocene reflector in the Levant Basin due to onlapping of the Middle Miocene reflector indicates uplift of the Eratosthenes Seamount and the Hecataeus Rise. In contrast to the Messinian Evaporites north of the Eratosthenes Seamount, the salt in the Levant Basin, even close to the Hecataeus Rise, is tectonically undeformed. It is proposed that the Eratosthenes Seamount, the western Levant Basin and the Hecataeus Rise act as one tectonic unit. This implies that the collision front is located north of this unit and that the Hecataeus Rise shields the sediments south of it from deformation associated with collision of the African and Anatolian Plates.

Effect of Fracture Aperture on P-Wave Attenuation: A Seismic Physical Modelling Study

We used the seismic physical modelling approach to study the effect of fracture thickness or aperture on P-wave attenuation, using a laboratory scale model of two horizontal layers. The first layer is isotropic while the second layer has six fractured blocks, each consisting of thin penny-shaped chips of 3 mm fixed diameter and same thickness to simulate a set of aligned vertical fractures. The thickness of the chips varies according to the blocks while the fracture density remains the same in each block. 2D reflection data were acquired with the physical model submerged in a water tank in a direction perpendicular to the fracture strikes using the pulse and transmission method. The induced attenuation was estimated from the preprocessed CMP gathers using the QVO method, which is an extension of the classical spectral ratio method of attenuation measurement from seismic data. The results of our analysis show a direct relationship between attenuation and the fracture thickness or aperture. The induced attenuation increases systematically with fracture thickness, implying more scattering of the wave energy in the direction of increasing aperture. This information may be useful to differentiate the effect caused by thin microcracks from that of large open fractures.

The Ventersdorp Contact Reef model in the Kloof Gold Mine as derived from 3D seismics, geological mapping and exploration borehole datasets

A model of the Ventersdorp Contact Reef (VCR) orebody at Kloof Gold Mine was derived by integrating 3D reflection seismic data with information derived from underground mine mapping and exploration drilling. The study incorporated the depth-converted prestack time migrated (PSTM) seismic cube, the mine geomodel, faults and dikes mapped in excavations, mine development infrastructure, and intersections of the VCR by surface and underground exploration drilling. The 3D seismic data provide an accurate geometric model of the VCR orebody and its offsets. The underground mapping datasets help to define minor faults and dikes that are below seismic resolution limits. The integration of the these datasets allowed (1) for better mapping of fault architectures and distributions within the lease area, (2) definition of the likely zones of difficult ground conditions around seismically imaged dikes and faults, and (3) better predictions of the number and spacing of faults that offset the VCR within minable blocks. The model is useful in mitigating both economic and safety risks of deep mining.

Improved signal processing for sub-basalt imaging

Abstract Sub-basalt imaging continues to provide a challenge within the West of Shetland region. Successful imaging is being achieved through the reprocessing of 2D reflection seismic data. These were acquired with conventional source array and streamer parameters and include key signal processing techniques. The first technique involves spectral processing to boost low-frequency signals at the early stages of processing. The second technique involves attenuating coherent and incoherent noise in all of the available ‘time-offset’ domains. Examples of the data after application of these techniques are presented and clear improvements over the original processing are demonstrated. As work on these reprocessing methods has progressed, the benefits of moving to a true broadband processing solution have become clear.

Integration of controlled-source and radio magnetotellurics, electric resistivity tomography, and reflection seismics to delineate 3D structures of a quick-clay landslide site in southwest of Sweden

Quick clay, which is the main cause of landslides that occur in the northern countries, liquefies easily, and its presence implies an increased risk of landslide. Geophysical methods have been increasingly used in landslide investigations. Three-dimensional electric resistivity tomography, radio magnetotelluric (RMT), controlled-source RMT (CSRMT), and high-resolution reflection seismic data were acquired at a quick-clay landslide site in the southwest of Sweden. The main objectives were to evaluate the capability of each method in delineating different subsurface geologic structures that controlled a peculiar and hazardous retrogressive-type landslide in the study area. A 3D resistivity model from the inversion of CSRMT data showed the best correlation with the reflection seismic data and borehole information, thanks to the broad frequency range of the data set. It better imaged the resistive crystalline bedrock underlying the marine conductive clays and showed considerable correlations with the 3D reflection seismic data in resolving a coarse-grained layer that was interpreted to act as a conduit directing freshwater into the clays under a confined pressure, leaching their salt and forming quick clays. The 3D CSRMT resistivity model and 3D reflection seismic data showed that the coarse-grained layer has a varying thickness. At some locations, it was too thin to be resolved by the methods used here. Combination of the CSRMT model, reflection seismic data, and the borehole data suggested that a layer with thickness of approximately 5 m and resistivity between [Formula: see text] was potentially quick clay, which probably extended laterally in the entire study area. These observations suggested that future developments should focus on joint inversion of such 3D data sets incorporating sharp boundaries as constraints in the inversion and particularly when quick clays were studied.

Top seal efficiency of the Lakes Entrance formation, Gippsland Basin: some constraints from seismic inversion and attributes

The Gippsland Basin is a potential site for CO2 storage which is dependent on the regional top seal in providing a secure subsurface containment. We present here some geological parameters derived with the aid of seismic attributes and inversion from 2D and 3D reflection seismic surveys predominantly along the southern flank of the basin. These parameters are potentially influential on the top seal efficiency and CO2 containment security in the basin.An important factor in top seal efficiency is the spatial variation of its shale content (Vsh). The empirical relationship between acoustic impedance and shale content was used to estimate Vsh. Composite seismic amplitude and acoustic impedance traces were constructed to establish a tie with the well-derived reference Vsh. Using a multi-attribute regression analysis, a transformation was established from seismic attributes and impedance to Vsh and used to define Vsh pseudotraces. Eight vertical profiles were produced in the Southern flank of the basin and the Vsh data were interpolated to reveal the first order variation in shale content for the top seal.Equally important in the assessment of containment risk is the distribution and density of faults in top seal. Seismic spectral blueing and attributes were used to increase the resolution of the 2D seismic data and a meta- attribute that sharpens the faults and suppresses non-fault discontinuities was coupled with similarity attributes to ensure a better imaging of low-displacement faults (<20 m). Automated mapping of the faults provided fracture density maps which depict the intensely deformed areas with potentially decreased seal efficiency on the southern flank of the basin.

Internal Combustion Impulse Source vs. Mini-vibrator vs. Nomad 65 vibrator shot tests

Over the last two decades 3D reflection seismic has been applied for mine planning in South Africa. For coal exploration, the mining targets are at shallower depths of less than 400m. The challenge set by the mining companies is to obtain high-resolution seismic data with maximum vertical resolution at this depth of investigation. The cost of geophysics must also be more attractive than that of the 'total drilling' alternative. Seismic source trials were therefore conducted at one mine site. The ICIS (Internal Combustion Impulse Source) has been developed by CGG to provide a solution for shallow target surveys and for in-fills where access for conventional sources is restricted. The source is self-contained, powered by readily available propane gas and oxygen, capable of 3,000 impacts per 16 oz. standard propane canister. A GPS-driven high-accuracy clock and a specially developed impact sensor provide accurate time-stamping and recording of time-break information to better than 1 I¼s. The shooting system integrates seamlessly with Sercel SN408 or SN428 recording systems, using an additional system process that allows the observer to switch rapidly from explosive or vibroseis mode to ICIS on a shot-by shot basis. The ICIS and Mini-vibrator performance were tested in shallow coal prospects, where existing 2D data have been acquired by Nomad 65 heavy vibrator. The tests demonstrated that ICIS is well suited to image target depths less than 500m with frequencies up to 100Hz. The comparison with the vibroseis sources showed that ICIS i) Delivered very good near offset data (> 50m) and for up-hole/low velocity layer survey ii) Required more shots per shot point in the medium offset range (1000m) due to its low energy iii) Not designed for far offset data (3000m). ICIS was found to be a viable geophysical and logistic solution for certain high-resolution mineral surveys.

The Dangeard and Explorer canyons, South Western Approaches UK: Geology, sedimentology and newly discovered cold-water coral mini-mounds

The Celtic Margin is a complex area in terms of sedimentary dynamics and evolution, with a number of submarine canyons dissecting the continental slope and outer continental shelf. The complex terrain and diverse range of sea-bed sediments play a part in submarine canyons being described as areas of high habitat heterogeneity. This study has concentrated on the heads of two canyons: Dangeard (also known as Dangaard) and Explorer (first named here) located in UK territorial waters, in water depths between 138 and 1165m. Multibeam echosounder, 2D reflection seismic and photographic ground-truthing data have been combined to map the sea-bed geomorphology, sedimentary features and canyon megafauna of these canyons. In addition, two previously unknown provinces of cold-water coral (CWC) mini-mounds were discovered on the interfluves of the Dangeard and Explorer canyons.The study area comprises a dendritic network of gullies feeding into the canyon thalwegs. Amphitheatre rims, where slope angles are commonly in excess of 20°, occur along the margins and heads of both canyons and are interpreted as drainage basins indicative of retrogressive mass-wasting in a shelfward direction.The CWC mini-mounds occur in water depths between 250m and 410m, with more than 400 mounds identified. They are up to 3m in height and 50–150m in diameter with no sub-surface expression, suggesting these mounds are, in geological terms, relatively young and possibly Holocene in age. Biological analyses revealed that the mounds form a habitat for ophiuroids and Munida associated with Lophelia pertusa coral rubble, suggesting these mini-mounds are not present-day living features.

Growth of normal faults in multilayer sequences: A 3D seismic case study from the Egersund Basin, Norwegian North Sea

We investigate the structural style and evolution of a salt-influenced, extensional fault array in the Egersund Basin (Norwegian North Sea) through analysis of 3D reflection seismic and well data. Analysis of fault geometry/morphology, throw distribution and syn-kinematic strata reveal an intricate but systematic style of displacement and growth, suggesting an evolution of (1) initial syn-sedimentary fault growth contemporaneous with salt mobilization initiated during the Late Triassic, (2) cessation of fault activity and burial of the stagnant fault tips, and (3) subsequent nucleation of new faults in the cover above contemporaneous salt re-mobilization initiated during the Late Cretaceous, with downward propagation and linkage with faults. Stage 3 was apparently largely controlled by salt mobilization in response to basin inversion, as reactivated faults are located where the underlying salt is thick, while the non-reactivated faults are found where salt is depleted. Based on the 3D-throw analyses, we conclude that a combination of basement faulting and salt (re-) mobilization is the driving mechanisms behind fault activation and reactivation. Even though the sub- and supra-salt faults are mainly geometrically decoupled through the salt, a kinematic coupling must have existed as sub-salt faults still affected nucleation and localization of the cover faults.

A Common Structure in PBW Bases of the Nilpotent Subalgebra of Uq(g)

For a finite-dimensional simple Lie algebra $\mathfrak{g}$, let $U^+_q(\mathfrak{g})$ be the positive part of the quantized universal enveloping algebra, and $A_q(\mathfrak{g})$ be the quantized algebra of functions. We show that the transition matrix of the PBW bases of $U^+_q(\mathfrak{g})$ coincides with the intertwiner between the irreducible $A_q(\mathfrak{g})$-modules labeled by two different reduced expressions of the longest element of the Weyl group of $\mathfrak{g}$. This generalizes the earlier result by Sergeev on $A_2$ related to the tetrahedron equation and endows a new representation theoretical interpretation with the recent solution to the 3D reflection equation for $C_2$. Our proof is based on a realization of $U^+_q(\mathfrak{g})$ in a quotient ring of $A_q(\mathfrak{g})$.

Seismic stratigraphic analysis of the Cenozoic sediments in the NW Faroe Shetland Basin – Implications for inherited structural control of sediment distribution

The post-basalt strata in the Faroese area have been investigated based on interpretation of 2D and 3D reflection seismic data. The post-basalt package is divided into 5 units which have led to the constructions of 6 structural maps and 5 thickness maps. Within the 5 units 12 prograding sediment bodies have been identified. Based on the interpretation it is possible to obtain an overview during time of the location of depocentres and direction of prograding units. Within Eocene time the depocentre was placed in the central part of the basin and the sediment influx was mostly from south and southwest. During Oligocene–Pliocene time the sediment influx was from north and northwest and the depocentre had moved in a westward direction closer to the Faroe Platform area.Emplacement of the Cenozoic sediments in the Faroese sector of the Faroe-Shetland Basin is controlled by thermal subsidence of the basin, and local uplift of sediment source areas. Reactivation of older, Paleozoic and Mesozoic, structural elements seem to control the sediment path way and restrict the depositional areas. Various structural elements being re-activated at different times caused considerable structural complexity. Understanding the older, structural elements and their control on sedimentation is a potential tool for understanding deviations from “normal” thermal subsidence and for predicting the prospectivity in the post-basalt succession in the Faroe-Shetland Basin.

Real-Time Detection and Filtering of Chaff Clutter from Single-Polarization Doppler Radar Data

Abstract In countries with frequent aerial military exercises, chaff particles that are routinely spread by military aircraft represent significant noise sources for ground-based weather radar observation. In this study, a cost-effective procedure is proposed for identifying and removing chaff echoes from single-polarization Doppler radar readings in order to enhance the reliability of observed meteorological data. The proposed quality control procedure is based on three steps: 1) spatial and temporal clustering of decomposed radar image elements, 2) extraction of the clusters’ static and time-evolution characteristics, and 3) real-time identification and removal (or censoring) of target echoes from radar data. Simulation experiments based on this procedure were conducted on site-specific ground-echo-removed weather radar data provided by the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA), from which three-dimensional (3D) reflectivity echoes covering hundreds of thousands of square kilometers of South Korean territory within an altitude range of 0.25–10 km were retrieved. The algorithm identified and removed chaff clutter from the South Korean data with a novel decision support system at an 81% accuracy level under typical cases in which chaff and weather clusters were isolated from one another with no overlapping areas.

Geometry and segmentation of an evaporite-detached normal fault array: 3D seismic analysis of the southern Bremstein Fault Complex, offshore mid-Norway

The Halten Terrace, offshore mid-Norway, is underlain by a Triassic evaporitic package that is rheologically weak, and led to decoupling of fault systems during Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous rifting. We use 2D and 3D reflection seismic data, constrained by wells, from the southern Bremstein Fault Complex of the Halten Terrace to map faults and key stratigraphic horizons, and analyse throw variations along faults, allowing us to constrain patterns of fault segmentation and linkage within the complex. The Bremstein Fault Complex has an overall tilted monoclinal geometry with localised fault systems at base salt level associated with overlying, highly distributed systems of normal faults. Vertical strain partitioning across the evaporite package means that sub-evaporite and supra-evaporite fault populations acted as semi-independent fault systems. Supra-evaporite faults are partly gravity-driven, and controlled by sub-evaporite faulting and consequent tilting of the evaporitic package. This behaviour leads to a wide variety of possible vertical linkage patterns of faults across the evaporite package. A greater variety of lateral segment linkage patterns occurs in evaporite-detached normal fault systems than in normal fault systems developed in the absence of evaporite units. Segment boundary styles can also be modified by migration of evaporite. Some segment boundaries are associated with a footwall anticline and hanging-wall syncline, in contrast to the footwall synclines and hanging-wall anticlines widely described in studies of normal fault systems.

3D Laser Scanner and its Application in Engineering Survey

3D laser scanning system is to use laser ranging principle to record intensively the 3D coordinates, reflectivity and texture information on the surface of the target object. It makes a real record of the three-dimensional space, which makes traditional measurement be released from the limit that couldn’t be exceeded in the past, and let the measurement precision up to a new level. At the same time, it has provided extensive researches with better help than ever. This paper mainly discusses the characteristics, working principle, application and future development of the ground 3 dimensional laser scanner.

Neoarchaean tectonic history of the Witwatersrand Basin and Ventersdorp Supergroup: New constraints from high-resolution 3D seismic reflection data

First-order scale structures in the West Wits Line and West Rand goldfields of the Witwatersrand Basin (South Africa) were mapped using the high-resolution 3D reflection seismic method. Structural models constrain the magnitude of displacement of thrusts and faults, the gross structural architecture and Neoarchaean tectonic evolution of the West Rand and Bank fault zones, which offset the gold-bearing reefs of the basin.The merging of several 3D seismic surveys made clear the gross strato-structural architecture of the goldfields; a macroscopic fold-thrust belt is crosscut by a macroscopic extensional fault array. These are dissected, eroded and overlain by the Transvaal Supergroup above an angular unconformity.The seismic sections confirm that the West Rand Group (ca. 2985–2902Ma) is unconformably overlain by the Central Rand Group (ca. 2902–2849Ma), with tilting of the West Rand Group syn- to post-erosion at ca. 2.9Ga. The seismic sections also confirm that an unconformable relationship exists between the Central Rand Group and the auriferous Ventersdorp Contact Reef (VCR), with an easterly-verging fold-thrust belt being initiated concomitant to deposition of the VCR at approximately 2.72Ga. Fold-thrust formation included development of the (1) newly identified first-order scale Libanon Anticline, (2) Tandeka and Jabulani thrusts which displace the West Rand Group, and (3) parasite folds.The fold-thrust belt is crosscut by a macroscopic extensional fault array (or rift-like system of faults) which incepted towards the end of extrusion of the Ventersdorp lavas, and certainly during deposition of the Platberg Group (2709–2643Ma) when a mantle plume may have heated the lithosphere. The West Rand and Bank fault zones formed at this time and include (1) the West Rand and Bank faults which are scissors faults; (2) second and third-order scale normal faults in the immediate footwall and hanging wall of the faults; (3) drag synclines, and (4) rollover anticlines.