3D Orthogonal Woven Composites Research Articles

Impact Performance of 3D Orthogonal Woven Composites: A Finite Element Study on Structural Parameters

This study uses the finite element method (FEM) to investigate the effect of key structural parameters on the impact resistance of E-glass 3D orthogonal woven (3DOW) composites subjected to low-velocity impact. These structural parameters include the number of y-yarn layers, the path of the binder yarn (z-yarn), and the density of the x-yarn. Using ABAQUS, yarn-level finite element (FE) models are created based on the measured geometrical parameters and validated for energy absorption and damage behavior from experimental data gathered from the previous study. The results from finite element analysis (FEA) indicate that the x-yarn density and the binder path substantially influenced the composites’ damage behavior and impact performance. Increasing x-yarn density in 3DOW leads to a 15% increase in energy absorption compared to models with reduced x-yarn densities. Moreover, as the x-yarn density increases, crack lengths at the back face of the resin matrix decrease in the y-yarn direction but increase in the x-yarn direction. The basket weave structure absorbs less energy than plain and 2 × 1 twill structures due to the less constrained weft primary yarns. These results underscore the importance of these structural parameters in optimizing 3DOW composite for better impact performance, providing valuable insights for the design of advanced composite structures.

Numerical investigation on mechanical behavior of 3D orthogonal woven composites in hygrothermal environments

3D orthogonal woven composites (3DOWCs) are increasingly utilized in various engineering applications due to their superior mechanical properties. However, their mechanical properties and damage mechanisms could be significantly influenced by the environmental factors such as temperature and moisture. This study aims to investigate the mechanical behavior of 3DOWCs under hygrothermal conditions through meso-scale finite element (FE) simulations. The proposed FE model is validated using existing experimental results under standard temperature and humidity conditions, and subsequently applied to predict the performance in hygrothermal environments. The effects of temperature, humidity, and loading conditions on the mechanical properties of 3DOWCs are analyzed and the corresponding failure mechanisms are revealed. This study offers significant insights into the hygrothermal behavior of 3DOWCs, thereby facilitating their optimal design and implementation in various engineering applications.

The Influence of Glass Fiber and Copper Wire z-Binder on the Mechanical Properties of 3D Woven Polymeric Composites

AbstractThree-dimensional composites (3D) have potential applications in various fields due to their enhanced properties compared to conventional two-dimensional composites (2D). This study investigates the effect of different volumes of z-binder made from copper wire and E-glass fiber on the mechanical properties of 3D woven polymeric composites. The tensile, flexural, and fracture toughness behavior of four types of 3D orthogonal woven composites were studied in addition to a comparative 2D composite. The creation of the 3D orthogonal single-ply fabrics involved weaving z-binders using two different copper wire diameters, single fiber bundles, and double fiber bundles, each combined with four layers of woven E-glass fiber. The consolidation process for both 2D fabric and single-fabric 3D woven composites was executed using the hand lay-up technique. The results showed that most 3D woven composites outperformed 2D composites in terms of fracture toughness (stress intensity factor KIC and energy release rate GIC) and flexural strain. However, a decrease in flexural strength and tensile properties was observed for all 3D composites. The specimen with a small copper diameter had the smallest decrease of 5% in tensile strength. Furthermore, a decrease of 9% and 21% was attained by reinforcing with double and single glass fiber bundle z-binders, respectively, as compared with 2D composites. The highest enhancement of 92.5% in flexural failure strain was attained with double glass fiber bundles of z-binder. The maximum improvement in KIC fracture toughness, reaching 126% and 101.5%, was observed in specimens with a single glass fiber bundle z-binder and those with a large copper wire diameter, respectively.

Prediction and adjustment of elastic properties in three‐dimensional orthogonal woven composites through dual‐scale modeling

AbstractThree‐dimensional (3D) orthogonal woven composites can overcome the drawback of weak interlaminar strengths in traditional laminated composites and exhibit excellent resistance to out‐of‐plane impact, however, the significant difference in properties in the in‐plane orthogonal direction will limit the potential range of application thereof. Predicting elastic properties and exploring methods of adjustment are therefore of paramount importance. Using computed tomography (CT) scanning to obtain detailed parameter models, a corresponding dual‐scale model of microscopic representative volume element (RVE) and mesoscopic RVE was established, and the accuracy of the model was experimentally validated, which can predict the elastic properties of materials. In addition, the influences of the yarn fiber volume fraction and weaving distance on elastic properties were evaluated using the elastic modulus visualization method, and a formula integrating these two factors is provided for adjustment of the in‐plane orthogonal Young's modulus.Highlights Experimentally validated microscale and mesoscale RVE models were established. The influences of factors on elastic properties were visualized. The relationship between Young's modulus and influencing factors was derived. A reliable strategy for adjusting the in‐plane Young's modulus was proposed.

Mesoscale analysis of aging mechanical behaviors of 3D woven composites

3D orthogonal woven composites (3DOWCs) are inevitably subjected to the severe cyclic hygrothermal aging environment in the application of supersonic aircraft structures and their durability should be proven. However, most current works relating to the hygrothermal aging of 3DOWCs rely on the experimental methods which are of high cost. To address this issue, a matrix-yarn mesoscale model of 3DOWCs was established to investigate the cyclic hygrothermal aging mechanical behaviors in this paper. High-fidelity mesoscale representative volume element (RVE) was constructed with realistic geometric configuration of the reinforcement. Only the aging properties of pure resin were needed in the mesoscale model. The aging properties of fiber yarns were calculated with Chamis formulas accounting for resin aging. Tension-compression asymmetry behavior of resin matrix was accounted in the constitutive model. The damage initiation and propagation of resin matrix, yarn and cohesive interface were modeled by the progressive 3D damage model. The mechanical properties of 3DOWCs before and after aging were predicted by the mesoscale model and validated with experiment. This work can provide effective tool for the design of 3DOWCs applied in harsh environments.

The effect of multiscale Kevlar/Glass hybridization on the mechanical properties and the damage evolution of 3D orthogonal woven composites under flexural and impact loadings

This work aims to evaluate the effectiveness of inter-ply/intra-tow hybridization in 3D woven composites to achieve an ameliorated impact and flexural performance. In this regard, inter-ply/intra-tow hybrid epoxy composites with Kevlar, E-glass, and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) reinforced 3D fabrics are manufactured using the vacuum infusion method. To scrutinize the static and dynamic responses, the produced composites are subjected to flexural and low-velocity impact (50, 100, and 150 J) tests. The findings show that inter-ply hybrid composites exhibit more improved impact and flexural performance than their intra-tow hybrid counterparts. While the elastic moduli and strength values of weft-directional hybrid composites increase, on the contrary, warp-directional counterparts do not display an enhancement in flexural performance. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examinations and acoustic emission analysis are conducted together on the bending specimens to understand failure mechanisms leading to observed mechanical responses.

Impact damage reduction of woven composites subject to pulse current

3D orthogonal woven composites are receiving increasing attention with the ever-growing market of composites. A current challenge for these materials’ development is how to improve their damage tolerance in orthogonal and layer-to-layer structures under extreme loads. In this paper, a damage reduction strategy is proposed by combining structural and electromagnetic properties. An integrated experimental platform is designed combining a power system, a drop-testing machine, and data acquisition devices to investigate the effects of pulse current and impact force on woven composites. Experimental results demonstrate that pulse current can effectively reduce delamination damage and residual deformation. A multi-field coupled damage model is developed to analyze the evolutions of temperature, current and damage. Parallel current-carrying carbon fibers that cause yarns to be transversely compressed enhance the mechanical properties. Moreover, the microcrack formation and extrusion deformation in yarns cause the redistribution of local current among carbon fibers, and its interaction with the self-field produces an obvious anti-impact effect. The obtained results reveal the mechanism of damage reduction and provide a potential approach for improving damage tolerance of these composites.

Impact Response of 3D Orthogonal Woven Composites with Different Fiber Types

Impact Response of 3D Orthogonal Woven Composites with Different Fiber Types

Interfacial Modification and Bending Performance of 3D Orthogonal Woven Composites with Basalt Filament Yarns.

To improve their interfacial properties, 3D orthogonal woven fabrics with basalt filament yarns were modified with functionalized carboxylated carbon nanotubes (KH570-MWCNTs) and polydopamine (PDA). Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) testing were used. It was demonstrated that both methods could successfully modify basalt fiber (BF) 3D woven fabrics. The 3D orthogonal woven composites (3DOWC) were produced with epoxy resin and 3D orthogonal woven fabrics as raw material by the VARTM molding process. The bending properties of the 3DOWC were tested and analyzed by experimental and finite element analysis methods. The results showed that the bending properties of the 3DOWC modified by KH570-MWCNTs and PDA were significantly improved, and the maximum bending loads were increased by 31.5% and 31.0%. The findings of the finite element simulation and the experiment results were in good agreement, and the simulation error value was 3.37%. The correctness of the finite element simulation results and the model's validity further reveal the material's damage situation and damage mechanism in the bending process.

Multiscale damage modelling of notched and un-notched 3D woven composites with randomly distributed manufacturing defects

This work proposes a stochastic multiscale computational framework for damage modelling in 3D woven composite laminates, by considering the random distribution of manufacturing-induced imperfections. The proposed method is demonstrated to be accurate, while being simple to implement and requiring modest computational resources. In this approach, a limited number of cross-sectional views obtained from micro-computed tomography (µCT) are used to obtain the stochastic distribution of two key manufacturing-induced defects, namely waviness and voids. This distribution is fed into a multiscale progressive damage model to predict the damage response of three-dimensional (3D) orthogonal woven composites. The accuracy of the proposed model was demonstrated by performing a series of finite element simulations of the un-notched and notched tensile tests (having two different hole sizes) for resin-infused thermoplastic (Elium®) 3D woven composites. Excellent correlation was achieved between experiments and the stochastic finite element simulations. This demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed stochastic multiscale model. The model successfully captured the stochastic nature of tensile responses (ultimate tensile strength and stiffness), damage modes (matrix damage and fibre failure), and initiation and propagation of transverse cracks in thermoplastic 3D woven composites, consistent with experimental observation. The stochastic computational framework presented in this paper can be used to guide the design and optimization of 3D textile composite structures.

Study of the attenuation of ultrasonic oscilliations in 3D-orthogonal woven composite

The particularities of 3D-woven composite’s defects are observed. Automated ultrasonic immersion through-transmission technique for their non-destructive testing is offered. X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) application for the definition of the reasons of ultrasonic waves high attenuation in 3D-orthogonal woven composite sample is described. The analysis of defects detected with X-ray CT is shown. The suggestion about connection between quantity of projection of defects total area at the plane which is perpendicular to ultrasonic wave propagation and ultrasonic wave attenuation has been made.

Development and experimental verification of a modified constitutive model for 3D orthogonal woven composite under bird impact

Three-dimensional (3D) orthogonal woven composites have potential application as a material for aeroengine blades, which are required to withstand the impact of a bird strike. In the current research, quasi-static and dynamic tensile tests were conducted on a 3D orthogonal woven composite in the warp and weft directions. The results indicate that the ultimate strength increased while the failure strain decreased with an increase of the strain rate. The effects of strain rate on the ultimate strength in the warp and weft directions are different. Therefore, a modified constitutive model that accounts for the different effects of the strain rate in different directions was established. The corresponding parameters were obtained from the test results. Bird impact tests and numerical simulations using the developed constitutive model were carried out with 3D orthogonal woven composite panels. These panels resisted the impact of high-speed bird strikes through an overall deformation. As the impact speed increased, the maximum deformation of the target panel in the thickness direction increased and the residual deformation after the impact also increased significantly. The simulation results are in good agreement with the test results, demonstrating the effectiveness of the modified model.

Multi-directional compression behaviors and failure mechanisms of 3D orthogonal woven composites: Parametric modeling and strength prediction

Three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites (3DOWCs) are extensively adopted in various civil and military fields. Parametric finite element models of 3DOWCs were established based on the mesoscale method to predict the compression strength and progressive damage process. The effects of structural parameters and loading directions on the failure mechanisms were investigated. The predicted results agreed well with the experimental data. The results revealed that yarn densities and loading directions significantly influenced the compression strength. It increased as yarn densities increased, and the weft compression strength was almost the largest in all directions and reached the maximum value of 634.8 MPa. In this case, it was 16.9% and 166.9% higher than that of the warp and Z-directions. Damage evolutions demonstrated that the damage of yarns and matrix occurred separately at the intersection of yarns and yarns, and yarns and matrix. The damage patterns of small warp and large weft yarn densities composites included yarn buckling, the interfacial debonding between yarns and matrix, and matrix cracking. Yarn kinking and fracture were the two main damage patterns of large warp and small weft yarn densities composites, while composites with large warp and large weft yarn densities were more prone to matrix cracking.

Carbon nanotube to enhancing mechanical properties of three-dimensional woven modified-basalt fiber composites

3D woven composites offer various high-performance characteristics and wide applications due to their lightweight, high strength, and good integrity. However, to exploit their structural advantages, it is necessary to improve the interface properties between reinforcement and matrix, and carbon nanotubes with excellent mechanical properties provide a good solution to improve the interface properties of composites. Based on this motivation, the goal of this study is to investigate the impact of multiwalled carbon nanotubes on the tensile and bending properties of basalt fiber through-angle interlocking 3D woven composite, layered-angle interlocking 3D woven composite and orthogonal 3D woven composite. The obtained results indicated that the maximum warp and weft tensile loads of the layered-angle interlocking composites increased by 19.3% and 28.5% from 91,091.3N and 8,409.5N to 9,288.4N and 11,761.4N, respectively. The maximum warp and weft bending loads of 3D orthogonal composites were increased by 26.4% and 19.6% from 566.7N and 635.4N to 770.0N and 790.3N, respectively. O-MWCNTs contain -OH, -COOH and the unsaturated double bond can active functional groups and basalt fiber on the surface of the Si-OH and unsaturated double bonds in the reaction to form epoxy resin covalent bond to improve the interface between the fiber and matrix effect, which solved the key problem of interface outstanding performance of 3D woven modified-basalt fiber composites.

An evaluation of the loading direction sensitivity of 3D woven composite with novel web-shaped Z-binder architecture

3D orthogonal (ORT) through-thickness woven composites have excellent out-of-plane properties but exhibit inferior in-plane properties and are loading sensitive. This study proposes a novel web-shaped orientation of z-binder architecture in 3D orthogonal through-thickness model with in-plane uniform elastic moduli to address this drawback. On-axis tensile, Off-axis tensile and In-plane Shear tests were performed on the four macroscale models (ORTon, WEBon, ORToff, WEBoff). The ORT model, validated by data from the literature, was used as a reference for the proposed WEB model. The overall fibre volume fraction of the WEBon, and WEBoff models were 7.07% and 8.67% lower than the ORTon, and ORToff models. In the on-axis tensile test, the Ex and Ey were lower by 16.89% and 2.66% for WEBon model, but in the off-axis tensile test, they were higher by 13.75% and 13.77% for WEBoff models. The Gxy was 10.96% lower for WEBon model. The difference between the Ex and Ey under on-axis loading conditions was 14.81% for ORT model, whereas 0.22% for WEB model. Thus, the proposed WEB shaped z-binder architecture model outperforms the ORT model under the off-axis and is comparable in transverse loading conditions. It also possesses loading direction insensitivity, unlike the ORT model.

Multi-Directional Compression Behaviors and Failure Mechanisms of 3d Orthogonal Woven Composites: Parametric Modeling and Strength Prediction

Multi-Directional Compression Behaviors and Failure Mechanisms of 3d Orthogonal Woven Composites: Parametric Modeling and Strength Prediction

Multiscale Analysis of Mechanical Properties of 3D Orthogonal Woven Composites with Randomly Distributed Voids.

Voids are common defects in 3D woven composites because of the complicated manufacturing processes of the composites. In this study, a micro–meso multiscale analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of voids on the mechanical properties of three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites. Statistical analysis was implemented to calculate the outputs of models under the different scales. A method is proposed to generate the reasonable mechanical properties of the microscale models considering randomly distributed voids and fiber filaments. The distributions of the generated properties agree well with the calculated results. These properties were utilized as inputs for the mesoscale models, in which void defects were also considered. The effects of these defects were calculated and investigated. The results indicate that tensile and shear strengths were more sensitive to the microscale voids, while the compressive strength was more influenced by mesoscale voids. The results of this study can provide a design basis for evaluating the quality of 3D woven composites with void defects.

Modeling tensile behavior of 3D orthogonal woven green composites considering variability of natural fibers

Over the past few decades, ecological concerns resulted in an interest in using natural fibers such as flax and hemp as a reinforcement in composite materials. However, the inherent variability of their mechanical and physical properties complicates predicting the mechanical performance of their preforms and hence composites. This research introduces a novel approach in modeling natural fiber composites. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first model that considers the variability of natural fibers' properties used in 3D orthogonal woven composites. Measured properties of fibers, yarns and resin in addition to geometrical parameters were used as inputs while the entire Load-Elongation curve of the composite was the output of the model. This model is generalized for any weave design and can be applied for hybrid structures. The model was verified experimentally using preforms from flax and hemp fibers. The model verification showed that there is a better agreement between the predicted and experimental results when using the properties of yarns as input rather than fibers.

Maximizing the Performance of 3D Printed Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Fiber-reinforced 3D printing technology offers significant improvement in the mechanical properties of the resulting composites relative to 3D printed (3DP) polymer-based composites. However, 3DP fiber-reinforced composite structures suffer from low fiber content compared to the traditional composite, such as 3D orthogonal woven preforms solidified with vacuum assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) that impedes their high-performance applications such as in aerospace, automobile, marine and building industries. The present research included fabrication of 3DP fiberglass-reinforced nylon composites, with maximum possible fiber content dictated by the current 3D printing technology at varying fiber orientations (such as 0/0, 0/90, ±45 and 0/45/90/−45) and characterizing their microstructural and performance properties, such as tensile and impact resistance (Drop-weight, Izod and Charpy). Results indicated that fiber orientation with maximum fiber content have tremendous effect on the improvement of the performance of the 3DP composites, even though they inherently contain structural defects in terms of voids resulting in premature failure of the composites. Benchmarking the results with VARTM 3D orthogonal woven (3DOW) composites revealed that 3DP composites had slightly lower tensile strength due to poor matrix infusion and voids between adjacent fiber layers/raster, and delamination due to lack of through-thickness reinforcement, but excellent impact strength (224% more strong) due to favorable effect of structural voids and having a laminated structure developed in layer-by-layer fashion.

Advanced textile technology for fabrication of ramie fiber PLA composites with enhanced mechanical properties

Poly (lactic acid) (PLA) has been widely used in preparation of biomass composites in recent years. Ramie fiber (RFs) can be introduced as a reinforcing element to enhance the performance of PLA composites. In this study, a novel fabrication technology through the combination of two-dimensional (2D) braiding and three-dimensional (3D) weaving are used for the preparation of RF/PLA composites with optimized mechanical properties. The twist ratio of ply/single yarn, the curing parameters, and RF content are considered to optimize the mechanical properties of the 3D orthogonal woven composites (3D composites). The tensile strength of RF ply yarn composites increases firstly and then decreases with the increase of twist ratio, and reach the maximum tensile strength (60.4 MPa) when the twist ratio is 0.3. The flexural and shearing properties of the 3D RF/PLA composites reach maximum under optimal curing conditions (190 ℃, 5 MPa, 30 min) at 50% RF content. The maximum flexural strength and modulus are higher than those reported for short RF composites and RF fabric composites. The high performance and low-cost 3D RF/PLA composites have good application potential in the automobile manufacturing industry.