2nd Century BC Research Articles

A bronze deposit excavated at Kalaureia in 2016. A statuette of the Herakles Chiaramonti type, a stand and a thymiaterion

This article presents three bronzes found on the island of Poros in 2016, during excavations in Area L, the presumed area of Kalaureia’s ancient settlement, c. 200 m to the south of the Sanctuary of Poseidon. The deposit included: 1. A statuette of the Herakles Chiaramonti type, here suggested to have been produced during the 2nd or 1st century BC; 2. A stand which may have functioned as a thymiaterion (incense burner) or a lamp stand. Judging from close parallels the stand was most likely produced during the 5th or 4th century BC; 3. A high-stemmed dish, which is interpreted as a thymiaterion contemporary with the stand. The items are tentatively suggested to have been used together, perhaps in religious veneration of Herakles. The bronzes are suggested to have been deposited either for what was intended to be temporary safe-keeping, or for religious reasons.

Grinding Installations in Pre- and Protohistoric Eurasia

The paper investigates grinding installations found across diverse archaeological sites in Eurasia, spanning from the Neolithic (10000-8800 BCE) to the Early Roman period (2nd century BC) in regions such as Georgia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, and Moldova. The study employs typological, traceological, experimental and comparative analyses. A significant focus is on the interdisciplinary examination of an installation at Grakliani Gora, representing the first comprehensive study within Georgia’s territory. This study aims to fill knowledge gaps regarding the origin, types, and functions of grinding installations found at archaeological sites like Gesher, Ulucak H.yük, Varvarovka VIII, Branzeni III, Kodzadermen, Liga, Ilipinar, Shiqmim, Tel Rehov, Grakliani Gora, Tsikhiagora, and Dedoplis Gora. Notable shared characteristics include indoor placement, using clay in platform construction, surrounding walls to contain scattered flour and the incorporation of side recesses for the material being ground or the produced flour. These installations were constructed to enhance the efficacy of working devices, increase flour yield, and minimize physical strain during daily activities.

Exploring the digital heritage of Ajanta Caves through VR technology

The Ajanta Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Maharashtra, India, are renowned for their exquisite ancient rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments. Dating back to the 2nd century BCE and spanning over a period of several centuries, these architectural marvels exhibit exceptional craftsmanship and artistic mastery. The caves consist of mesmerizing murals, sculptures, and architectural features that depict various scenes from the life of Buddha and other significant figures in Buddhism. These paintings portray an array of vibrant colors and delicate details that have withstood the test of time remarkably well. What makes Ajanta Caves truly remarkable is not only their aesthetic beauty but also the cultural significance they hold. It is crucial to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of these caves for future generations. For this study we have selected Ajanta Cave No. 1. This research aims to investigate how Virtual Reality (VR) technology enhance the digital experience of exploring the Ajanta Caves.

From the Hippocratic Oath to modern deontological codes: continuity or overcoming?

Even if the Hippocratic Oath in its enlightened synthesis encapsulates the essence of the great master's deontological teachings, there is no doubt that a more complete picture of Hippocratic ethics can be gleaned from the contents of the entire Corpus Hippocraticum, and it matters little if the various writings contained therein are not all attributable to him, but are in fact the work of various authors who lived between the 5th and 2nd centuries BC.

CHİNESE ZİTHER SE İN ANCİENT AND TRADİTİONAL MUSİCAL AND İNSTRUMENTAL CULTURES OF TURKİC, MONGOLİAN AND TUNGUSKA-MANCHU ETHNİC GROUPS

The relevance of this study is conditioned by the dynamic development of the guzheng zither of medieval and folk instruments of Inner Mongolia, Manchuria (North and North-East China), Mongolia, the Far East and Southern Siberia (Russian Federation), the original prototype of which is one of the oldest string plucked instruments in China – the se zither (瑟). The purpose of the study was to investigate the design features and tuning methods of se zither (瑟). A system of scientific research methods was used, namely organological analysis, comparison, deduction, and abstraction. As a result of the study, it was found that the se zither (瑟) differs from the classical Chinese zither qín (琴). Given the study of historical and archaeological sources of the 7th – 2nd centuries BCE, the oldest area of distribution of the xie zither was found within the ancient kingdom of Chu (6th – early 2nd century BCE), whose population was ethnically different from the Huaxia Chinese, and its modification, the zheng zither (箏), during the Qin dynasty (771 – 221 BCE). In addition, the ways of its infiltration into the medieval instrumentation of the ancient peoples of these regions of Central and South-East Asia were determined. The shape, design features, and the method of tuning with movable stands have established the genetic connection of this type of zither with ancient and traditional instruments of Turkic and Mongolian ethnic groups and its infiltration into the medieval court instruments of the Tunguska-Manchu.

The First Cranial Trepanation Find in a Meotian Burial Ground (Starokorsunskiy Settlement No. 2, Krasnodar Region)

A young woman’s skeleton dating back to the Meotian archaeological culture was studied during the investigation of the paleoanthropological series of the burial ground of the Starokorsunsky settlement No. 2. The burial ground is located in the Krasnodar Territory and is dated to the 4th century BC – 2nd century AD, while the burial under discussion dates back to the 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD. A trepanation hole with signs of healing was found on the skull of a young female of 17–25 years of age. In order to describe the pathological changes recorded on the cranial vault recommendations applied in modern paleoanthropology were used. Differential diagnosis was performed using descriptive macroscopic and X-ray diagnostic methods. It was possible to establish that the trepanation hole was made at least several years before the death of the individual. We suggested that the reason for the operation could be early synostosis of the skull sutures, and this manipulation was designed to reduce intracranial pressure and headaches caused by it. The article discusses the likely origins of medical skills for surgical manipulation. It is concluded that so far the data obtained do not allow us to speak unequivocally about the acquisition of medical knowledge by Meots from residents of the Asian Bosporus or from the Sarmatian environment.

The God of Earthquakes: Several Hypotheses Related to One Dedicatory Inscription to Poseidon Asphaleios From Mesambria on Pontus

This article aims to present to the scientific community a dedicative inscription to the God Poseidon in his capacity as Asphaleios -Securer, embedded in one of the churches in Nessebar (Bulgaria)–St. Paraskeva Church. The inscription was found in 2013 during conservation-restoration works in the church. It is published for the first time here, and comments have been made on its connection with earthquakes and seaquakes in Southeastern Europe during so-called Hellenistic Period. The inscription is in the Doric dialect in four lines built in as a spolium on a recess above the altar apse on the church’s southern side in an upside-down position. Based on specific features of palaeography and orthography of the letters, the suggested dating is the second half of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd century BC. The epithet of the god in this inscription–Asphaleios is attested in other Dorian poleis; however, here, it cannot be connected with a temple to Poseidon. It was probably brought to Mesambria on Pontus from somewhere else; as exemplified with similar inscriptions originating from Kallatis (present-day Mangalia, Romania) and Dionysopolis (present-day Balchik, Bulgaria). The epiklesis in the mentioned inscriptions hints at the consequences of the seismic activity during the period comprising roughly the second quarter to the middle of the 3rd century BC that swept across Southeastern Europe and caused severe damage. Therefore, this inscription is another example of Poseidon being worshipped in his capacity of Securer and Earth-Stayer and being recognized as a symbol of hope for ancient people.

From Ancient Threads to Colonial Commerce: The Evolution of West Bengals Silk Industry from Mythical Origins to Independence

Silk production, or sericulture, has a rich history that is frequently eclipsed by its modern applications. Sericulture began in ancient China approximately 3000 BC and this was a well held secret until it spread to Korea, India and eventually the West through a variety of causes, including royal intrigue and missionary endeavours. By the Han Dynasty, silk had evolved from a luxury item to a valuable economic asset, impacting trade and culture throughout Asia and Europe. India's silk industry, as documented in ancient scriptures, progressed from early wild silk production in the Himalayan foothills to sophisticated mulberry sericulture by the 2nd century BCE. The Mughal dynasty improved Indian silk traditions by incorporating several weaving techniques and nurturing a thriving business in Kashmir and Bengal. From 1612 to 1858, the East India Company capitalised on Bengal's silk potential by building trading centres and using Piedmontese reeling technology to improve quality. Despite initial hurdles, Bengal silk became a major export commodity, but colonial policies and technological shifts eventually led to its demise. Silk output fell dramatically after independence due to a variety of economic and geopolitical issues. This article investigates the growth of India's silk industry, focussing on Bengal's key role and examines the effects of colonial control, technological advancements and the sector's trajectory up to Independence.

Rens Krijgsman: <i>Early Chinese Manuscript Collections: Sayings, Memory, Verse, and Knowledge. Studies in the History of Chinese Texts</i>

The book under review is a study of manuscript texts from Warring States and early imperial China (approximately the 5th to 2nd centuries BCE); its specific topic is “manuscript collections,” that is, “single manuscripts containing multiple (originally) distinct texts”. In this book, Rens Krijgsman explores what happened when multiple texts came to be combined on the same material carrier: How were texts selected, organized, and integrated into individual collections? What relationships obtained among these different texts? And how did collections affect reception, including interpretation and perceptions of genre? Cautious not to overstep the evidence, Krijgsman acknowledges that certain basic information about production and use of early manuscript collections is wanting: we do not (and cannot) know who collected the texts and produced the manuscripts, nor can we know who used collections. Wielding impressive command of the technical aspects of early manuscripts and of a broad range of texts, he seeks to extract as much information as possible through a careful yet comprehensive analysis of the material aspects of manuscript collections, their content, and their organization.

초기 고구려의 기층문화 연구 ④ - 桓仁 지역 돌무덤

This article analyzes the Dalishugou site, Dadianzi site, Guangfucun site, Fengjiapuzi site, and Wangjianglou site in Huanren County. Through the analysis of tombs, the location and distribution of tombs, their structure, burial method and funerary objects were examined from a tentative perspective. The structures of the tombs are diverse, and include stone cists, stone-lined tombs, pit-type and stone-mound-type dolmens, stone-mound tombs with capstones, and stone-lined tombs with non-stepped stone cairns. The stone-mound tombs with capstones have only been excavated at the Fengjiapuzi site. These tombs appear to be of a transitional aspect as they have a complex structure of a dolmen and a stone-mound tomb. Cremation customs were investigated at the Dadianzi site, Guangfucun site, Fengjiapuzi site, and Wangjianglou site. In particular, traces of the transformation of funerary objects due to cremation in the tomb were investigated. The bones in Wangjianglou tomb No. 1 were grayish-white in color, indicating cremation at high temperatures. Few artifacts were excavated from the tombs. A narrow-bladed bronze dagger and bronze arrowhead were excavated from the Dadianzi tomb, and a bronze bracelet was excavated in the Guangfucun tomb. Although several tombs with relatively diverse structures were excavated at the Fengjiapuzi site, the artifacts were simple, such as a mounted cup and a polished stone dagger imitating a narrow-bladed bronze dagger. In the Wangjianglou tomb, earthenware such as a Long-necked jar with four-ears, a jar-like plate, various ironware, jade bracelets, glass rings and ear plug, earring made of braided gold thread, and various ball-shaped beads were found. Among these, the Long-necked jar with four-ears is compared to a jar excavated from the Longtoushan dolmen in Xinbin and has many similarities with the earthenware of early Goguryeo. The tombs from the Bronze Age to the early Goguryeo period in the Huanren County are helpful in understanding the process of change and development in terms of their structure and funerary objects. The Dalishugou tombs was built around the 10th century BC. With the advance of the Yan Dynasty in the early 4th century BC, ironware from the Eastern Zhou was introduced, bringing about significant cultural changes in Northeast Asia. The stone cist tombs at the Dadianzi site and the dolmen at Guangfucun site date from around the mid-3rd century BC, although there is no significant difference in time. Also, around this time the stone-mound-type dolmens at the Fengjiapuzi site were built, as well as. The stone-mound tombs with capstones (No. 3 and No. 5) at the Fengjiapuzi site constructed at the end of the 3rd century BC. Meanwhile changes occurred as stone mounds played an important role in the tomb structure of this period, which became the stone-lined tombs with non-stepped stone cairns, representing the early Goguryeo tombs. Tombs No. 1 and No. 4 at the Wangjianglou site and tomb No. 4 at the Fengjiapuzi site are inferred to have been built around the 2nd century BC at the latest.

Highly radiogenic lead in Shandong bronzes (5th-3rd century BC) and lead mines provides evidence of a metal road from China to Korea and Japan

The origin of the lead materials containing highly radiogenic lead (HRL) isotopes found in bronzes dating back to the 4th–2nd century BCE in Korea and Japan remains enigmatic. The lead isotope analysis conducted on 111 bronzes, slags, and lead ores from Shandong, China, has provided valuable insights into the establishment of the metal trade network in Northeast Asia. The findings reveal a notable transition in the source of lead material used in Shandong from the early to the middle and late Warring States periods. Initially, Shandong bronzes heavily relied on imported lead materials from Central China; however, during the middle and late Warring States periods, there was a shift towards the utilization of HRL (206Pb/204Pb range: 18.6–23.1) and lead with low 206Pb/204Pb ratios, which were uncommon in other regions of China contemporaneously. The isochron relationship (2.29 Ga) between the 207Pb/204Pb-206Pb/204Pb of the HRL bronzes from Shandong, Japan-Korea, and the HRL lead ores of the Xiliang lead mine in Yishui, Shandong, demonstrates a strong correlation, suggesting that the HRL metal materials prevalent in Northeast Asia during the 4th–2nd century BCE likely originated from the Tai-Yi Mountains in Shandong Province.

An updated reconstruction of Campi Flegrei caldera (southern Italy) ground deformation history and its interaction with the human sphere since Roman time

Since the 19th century, many scientists have tried to reconstruct the ground motions that occurred in the Campi Flegrei caldera, one of the most dangerous volcanos in the Mediterranean area. This study aims to assess the joint effects of vertical ground movements and anthropic forcing along the coasts of this volcanic area. A huge dataset of hundreds of archeo-stratigraphic boreholes was coupled with direct and indirect surveys of the main underwater archaeological sites scattered along the whole coastal sector and with the reinterpretation of bibliographic sources. Clear evidence of a differential volcano-tectonic behaviour (highlighted for the first time in this study) led us to divide the study area into three coastal stretches with homogeneous vertical ground movements. In each sector, a new relative sea-level (RSL) curve was reconstructed, by interpreting our stratigraphic and archaeological data in terms of SL markers covering a wider timespan compared to the previous studies, from the first Roman urbanization to the present day. The comparison between RSL curves and GIA models allowed estimating vertical ground movements (See Supplementary material 2) that occurred along the coast with decimetres accuracy. For each of the 5 recognized phase of uplift or subsidence, we also studied the subsequent effects in terms of coastal geomorphological change, and advantages or negative impacts on ancient human activities. We measured an overall subsiding trend that brought the RSL from −12 ± 1 m (4th century BC) to 7 ± 0.2 m during three different episodes between 5th and 15th centuries (1450–450 y BP), which was interrupted by short-lived falls (less of 100 years) of RSL. During the phases of RSL fall and/or volcano-tectonic stability, detected for the first time in the eastern and western part of the caldera (1st-2nd century AD and 3rd-4th century AD), a basinward shift of the coastline created newly emerged land even at the base of the local sea cliffs, where shore platforms emerged, favouring intense phases of urbanization on them along the Baia – Miseno sector and at the footslope of Rione Terra. This trend also favoured the closure of the Lucrino lagoon with an extended spit bar during the 2nd century BC, allowing the establishment of a large oyster farming system belonging to Sergio Orata. On the contrary, the subsiding phases resulted in the flooding of coastal areas and anthropic structures such as villas, nymphaea and ports inducing the construction of coastal protection structures. In the extreme case of Portus Julius, subsidence led to the abandonment of the military port and its move to nearby Miseno.

Reception of Ambassadors in the Roman Senate during the Period of the Republic as Documented by Titus Livius

This article considers the status of ambassadors in the Roman Republic, focusing on the relations between foreign embassies and the Senate from the 6th to the 1st centuries BC, as described by Titus Livius (Livy) in «The History of Rome from the Founding of the City». Livy addresses many aspects, including the arrival of ambassadors and their reports to public officials, which the Senate deemed necessary for recognizing them as legitimate representatives. Additionally, he details their claims in the Senate and the subsequent discussions held by the Senators, as well as the process of making decisions and responding to ambassadors. Livy’s narrative offers an insight into the entire process of how ambassadors were received, from their arrival in Rome and registration with magistrates until their departure from Rome or Italy in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Special attention is paid to the Senate’s debates over the problems raised by ambassadors. Overall, Livy outlines the general procedure used by the Senate to settle foreign policy matters.

익산지역 마한문화의 성립과 변천

It is generally believed that Mahan was founded before the 2nd century BC. According to historical records, Mahan began with King Jun's migration and settlement in the Iksan area. Since there are not many cases that have been investigated in relation to the residential areas with living remains, few facts of them are known accurately. The tombs constructed include wooden coffin tombs with stone mound, pit tombs, and jar coffin tombs. Out of them, however, wooden coffin tombs with stone mound and pit tombs from an early period are sporadically identified, and the mainly excavated relics are bronze ware. Following the southward transfer of King Jun, a large group of tombs were constructed as in Madong, and the relics excavated are featuring both bronze and iron ware. In light of this, it can be said that the Mahan society in the Iksan region during the establishment period developed by actively accepting advanced civilization. Around the 1st century, the Mahan society in the Iksan region faced a period of stagnation, and villages began to be built in full swing after the 2nd century AD, reaching a peak in the 3rd to 4th centuries AD. Large-scale settlements appeared in places like Sadeok and Jangshin and small- and medium-sized villages were formed and organically connected to each other around the large-scale settlements in the center. As for tombs, mounded tombs with an encircling ditch began to be built in earnest, and it can be seen as the developing period of Mahan culture.. The Mahan culture in the Iksan area sustained even after Baekje territorialization. Such dwellings as four-pillar and non-four-pillar types of Mahan culture continued and, in some dwellings, fire pits made of plate stone and utensils which can be seen as Baekje elements appear and Baekje pottery is found in the sites of dwellings. Furthermore, dwelling sites with pillars used for walls related to the center of Baekje made an entrance. Tombs of the Mahan tradition also continued to be built even after Baekje territorialization. However, the stone chamber or stone-lined tomb related to the center of Baekje were employed for burial body and the grave goods changed to Baekje pottery, while Baekje pottery was excavated within the burial mound. In the areas of Ipjeom-ri and Ungpo-ri, the lower reaches of the Geumgang River, stone- built tombs of Baekje style were built in the mid-5th century, an evidence confirming that Baekje first took control of the lower Geumgang River, an important waterway transportation route and gateway. After the Gwangam-ri area in the middle of the Mangyeong River basin first became Baekje territory, Baekje central culture seemed to have entered the surrounding areas, too.

Data on the dynamics of the fortification construction of the Baitovo culture in the context of the traditions of defensive architecture among the population of the early iron age of the forest-steppe Trans-Ural

The article analyses remains of the Baitovo Culture fortifications in the focus of archaeological research. These remains are dated back to the early Iron Agee and situated in the Transural forest-steppes. Previously determined stages of the culture development (early to late 7th – 6th century BC and late 5th – 3rd century BC) are relied on to analyse and restore the walls that used to fringe the settlements. The study reviews the shapes, depth and water levels in the moats at Maray5, Likhachevskoe and Borovushka2 hillforts. The research suggests that the settlements used to be fortified with a stakewall at the bottom of the moat. Likhachevskoe hillfort had its gate towers restored. The researched Baitovskoe, Staro-LybaevoII and Bochanetskoe hillforts allow to conclude that even later on the early Iron Age settlements preserved the tradition of erecting compact stakewalls or wattles at the bottom of moats. However, this as when the Baitovo culture people started to erect fortifications with deeper moats and higher walls (Bolshoy Imbiryay3, Maray1 hillforts). This is evident of increasingly more substantial defence of the settlements. The studied Sargat and Gorokhovo culture fortifications peaked in 3rd – 2nd century BC. The comparison reveals that on one hand people kept opting for simple stakewall structures or wattlers to fortify their settlements, but they tended to change the properties and made their moats and walls more substantial. On the other, they reinforced fortifications through gate towers, wooden supports for moat walls, log frameworks and cages on the walls. Such structures are typical for fortresses that bore the function of social and economic centers. It is concluded that the defense works the Baitovo people erected illustrate the early defensive architecture of the early Iron Age Transurals.

KozhukhovaE.I., MustafinKh.Kh., SemenovV.A., UchanevaE.N. Reconstructing Ethnocultural Processes in the Sausken Valley (Tuva) during the Later Half of the 1st Millennium BC

The article represents findings of the group research devoted to reconstructing ethnocultural processes of the second half of the 1st millennium BC (Sausken Terrain Feature, Tuva). The research comprehensively studies local population groups who left behind their burial monuments in Eerbek River Valley. The study engages geneticist, ancient technologies experts, anthropologists and archaeologists. Kurgans of the middle and late Uyuk-Sagly Culture (5th–2nd century BC) were excavated in 2011–2016 by Tuva archaeological expedition arranged by the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute for the History of Material Culture. Nearly all burials in the kurgans had been robbed back in the ancient days. The study analyses above-ground structures and internal layouts of the kurgans, the burial ritual and tools (weapons, mirrors, belt accessories, bone items, embellishments). It allows to conclude that the kurgans have varying cultural attributions. The research also implies instrumental process analysis of glass and stone beads, chromatography of fabrics and proteomic analysis of archaeological leather. The paper reveals radiocarbon dating (14C) and correlations with other burial monuments of the Scythian Tuva. Craniological materials analysed allow to determine populations that could have been related to the aliens who arrived at the Eerbek River Valley in the Uyuk times. The Ozen-Ala-Belig groups differ from their peers from other territories in Tuva. It might be explained through the Uyuyk migrants mixing with the Eerbek Valley people who had been living there since the late Bronze Age. The paleogenetic study of 19 items especially focuses on researching the Y-chromosome DNA. For many researched samples the study determines haplogroups Q1b1a3-L330 and R1a1a1b2-Z93 (or its subgroups). The area of spread for these haplogroups is Soviet Central Asia, Central Asia, West and South Siberia. One samples is assigned to I2a1b1-M223 haplogroups with the area of spread in the Balkans and South-Eastern Europe. The obtained findings may indicate that the Western and Eastern nomads kept in touch during the researched period. The archaeological, anthropological and genetic data lead to a conclusion that the Scythian cultures in the given region is complex and multi-faceted.

Scythian barrow near Bychok village on the left bank of the Lower Dniester

The article for the first time publishes and analyzes the materials obtained during the study of Scythian mound 6 near Bychok village on the left bank of the Lower Dniester. Description of the of the barrow and the graves: Four Scythian graves were studied under the mound. The barrow was built above the main burial in the catacomb. Its entrance pit was filled with stone, then covered with wood, and after a stone core was built in the center of the mound. Despite this, the burial was robbed; two amphoraу of Ikos, a black-glazed vessel, gold plaques, a silver finial and horse harness items were preserved from the grave goods. The bridle belonged to two horses, which were laid in the dromos. Simultaneously with the main burial two accompanying graves were built in rectangular pits under a wooden covering and a stone core in the center of the barrow. A “guard” was buried in one of them with a quiver set and sacrificial food with an iron knife, in the second burial were buried two bridled horses in a “standing” position. After a short time, the grave of a child in the catacomb was sunk into the mound. The entrance to the funeral chamber was covered with a stone wall; a molded jug and an abrasive tool were placed in the chamber. Barrow dating: Two Greek amphorae and a black-glazed lekanis from the main burial in the catacomb allow us to date the barrow to the second quarter of the 4th century BC. The secondary child burial was sunk into the mound no later than the middle of the 4th century BC. Final remarks: It must be stated that mound 6 near the Bychok village was built for the internment of a person (persons?) with high social status. This is evidenced by the design of the mound (with a stone core and a wooden covering in the center), the labor spends for the construction of the main catacomb, as well as two accompanying graves (“a guard” in a separate pit and two horses in a separate pit) and the burial of two horses in the dromos of the main grave. An iron bridle preserved undisturbed in the paired horse burial allows us to conclude about the evolution of some of its elements among the Scythians during the 4th–2nd centuries BC. The totality of data obtained during the study of the barrow not only adds the picture of the Scythian presence in the North-West Black Sea region, but also allows us to draw attention to some elements of the funerary rite and material culture, which were previously recorded extremely rarely or were not found at all in the region.

Elite of «Loufan» tribe lived on the Ordos plateau and its connections with Zhao and Qin states

In the late 20 century, archaeologists discovered some burial sites of the barbarian elite in the Ordos Plateau dated to 3rd century BC (late Warring States period). Among them Aluchaideng, Sigoupan M2 and Nalingaotu tombs contained burial goods made of precious metals in the style of Pazyryk and Sagly cultures in Altai-Sayan mountain region. There were finials with figures of an upstanding eagle and a hoofed eagle-headed deer-horned phantastic animal with bird heads at the tips of its horns (“hoofed griffin”), a torc with lying animals facing each other. Other items with ‘hoofed griffin’ images and images of a griffin with deer horns and feline body were collected here. There were also ornaments with images of a ram with the twisted body wrapped around its head, ‘swirling’ griffinheads, rooster heads, waterfowls, full-face ‘smiling’ cat heads, flame-shaped figures with ‘commas’ inside. All of the above mentioned artifacts and images have exclusive analogies in Pazyryk culture. As far back as in 1999, the author suggested that the elite of Ordos nomads of 3rd century BC constituted common religious and, possibly, ethnic unity with the Pazyryk people. New discoveries of Pazyryk culture kurgans in the south of Mongolian Altai support a idea that the Ordos part of the Pazyryk people might have connected with Mountain Altai directly via Alashan and Transaltai Gobi stony deserts bypassing foreign peoples of Mongolian Plateau and the Hexi Corridor. According to Shiji, people (or its elite) occupying the Ordos Plateau since 4th–3rd up to late 2nd centuries BC were known by the name “Loufan”, and in early 3rd century BC the Loufan people were controlled by the state of Zhao. As the written sources and archaeological evidence suggest, in the 3rd century BC, the north-east part of the Ordos Plateau (where the burials in question are located) was the area claimed by Zhao and Qin states; therefore, the barbarian tribes of the north-east of the Ordos Plateau should have been closely intertwined with these states. These relations are proven by Pazyryk-Ordos style artifacts manufactured in Qin and Zhao and found in barbarian tombs, as well as similar objects discovered in the Qin, Zhao and Yan territories. In Sigoupan M2 tomb were found such items bearing Chinese inscriptions of Zhao and Qin states. A large number of similar inscribed artifacts manufactured in Zhao found in Xinzhuantou M30 noble tomb in the Lower Capital of Yan state. It supports the theory that the Ordos barbarians were called Loufan, since as per written sources, Loufan people were included in both Zhao’s and Yan’s administrative systems. Some items identical to the M30 artifacts were found in tombs of Zhao dynasty members in Handan. In tomb of bronze caster of late Warring States period in Xi’an were found ceramic models made for casting bronze or gold decorative plaques in Pazyryk-Ordos style. However, some pictures in this style were represented on artifacts found in the tomb of Qin State Queen Dowager Xia (died in 240 BC). Artifacts with images of “hoofed griffin” are found among Qin state artifacts in Shuihude M47 and Shangwangqun M1 tombs dated to late Warring States period. Moreover, in Xi’an were also found two roof tile-ends with images of a sacred Pazyryk ‘hoofed griffin’ with twisted body. These tiles obviously belonged to luxurious mansion of Warring States period. These artifacts suggest that the Ordos Loufans did not only maintained cultural communication with the Qin state, but also became part of its people.

Номенклатура металлов и сплавов из сарматских могильников Нижнего Поволжья II в. до н.э. – первой половины II в. н.э. по данным РФА

The work presents the results of an analysis of the chemical composition of 82 objects from non-ferrous and precious metals dating from the 4th century BC – the first half of the 2nd century AD and originating from the excavation of funeral monuments located in the Lower Volga region. Basically, the analysis of the chemical composition of non-ferrous metal was carried out for objects characteristic of the ordinary population of the region: mirrors, jewelry, clothing or household items, and details of horse harnesses; importantly, sampling was random. The data obtained by the XRF method are very interesting and demonstrate a change in the nomenclature of leading alloys. So, for the period of the 2nd century BC – the border of eras, there is a significant number of objects from tin as well as from tin-lead bronze, with a slight presence of products from a multicomponent alloy, an alloy with arsenic. For the period of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD, there is a significant change in the leading types of alloys: zinc-containing alloys such as two- and three-component brass dominate the sample; also significantly increased the share of triple bronze, highly alloyed with lead; there are also products made of copper and tin bronze. Silver products made of silver from different samples are present in all stages. Analysis of alloying components and impurities in the identified alloys made it possible to distinguish in the sample of the 2nd century BC –the border of eras, the influence of the North Caucasian center of non-ferrous metalworking; recorded changes in the nomenclature of alloys of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD arose, most likely, under the influence of the North Black Sea center of non-ferrous metalworking. The presence of high-zinc brass objects in the sample during the period of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD also does not exclude the receipt of this type of brass from the production center located in Central Asia, which is characterized by an extremely high zinc content in the alloy.

«Общее право» и «общий суд» на Крите в эпоху эллинизма

Certain evidence demonstrates that in the League of Cretans in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, there was a Code (diagramma) — the only known example of a set of rules of tort and procedural law that was in force on the territory of the entire federation of Greek poleis. The Code contained rules for calculating monetary compensation for an offense, and also regulated the procedure for conducting a trial regarding a delict committed by a citizen of one Cretan city against a citizen of another, or against a foreigner. To consider such cases, a “general court” (koinodikion) was created in Crete, which apparently consisted of representatives of different poleis. The League of Cretans, thus, sought to ensure that conflicts between citizens of different communities of Crete were settled in a uniform and civilized way and would not undermine the unity and stability of the entire federation.