2-chloroethyl Trimethylammonium Chloride Research Articles

Development of an integrated assay in human TK6 cells to permit comprehensive genotoxicity analysis in vitro

In vitro genetic toxicology assays are used to assess the genotoxic potential of chemicals or mixtures. They measure chromosome damage (e.g., micronucleus [MN] formation) or gene mutation, and different combinations of data generated from such assays are evaluated in concert in order to identify genotoxic hazards. Mode-of-action (MoA) information is also fundamental to understanding any apparent genotoxic response. In view of the importance of these types of data for full characterization of genotoxic potential, we leveraged relevant endpoints already established in the human TK6 cell line to develop a single integrated assay that measures MN formation, gene mutation (at the thymidine kinase locus), and MoA (DNA damage response biomarkers). Several prototypical direct-acting genotoxins (methyl methanesulfonate, mitomycin C, and 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide), pro-genotoxins (benzo[a]pyrene and cyclophosphamide monohydrate), and one non-DNA reactive genotoxin (vinblastine sulfate) were assessed in the approach and found to elicit genotoxic profiles that were generally consistent with their MoA. In contrast, the non-genotoxic agents D-mannitol and (2-chloroethyl) trimethyl-ammonium chloride induced negligible effects on all endpoints up to a top concentration of 10 mM. Sodium diclofenac, presumed to be non-genotoxic, provoked an induction in the phosphoserine10-H3-positive cell population within a small window of concentrations (0.157–0.314 mM), as well as increases in γH2AX, nuclear p53, and MN at higher concentrations, although it had no effect on the mutation frequency endpoint. G2M cell cycle arrest was also largely observed in cells that exhibited genotoxicity in the in vitro MN assay. The TK6 cell-based integrated assay represents an in vitro approach that permits comprehensive genotoxicity analysis in a human-relevant test system. Moreover, its vis-à-vis nature may facilitate further comprehension of the range of effects that can manifest in human cells in response to DNA-damaging agents.

Cottonseed yield and its quality as affected by mineral nutrients and plant growth retardants

AbstractSeed quality is one of the most important factors for stand establishment in cotton (Gossypium sp.), and the use of good quality seeds is therefore essential to obtain an optimum plant population. Conditions prevailing during seed formation can affect the quality of seed produced, and hence crop establishment in the next growing season. These conditions can affect the germination of the seeds and the ability of the seedlings to emerge from soil, these being the most critical stages during the life cycle of cotton plant. Field experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), foliar application of zinc (Zn) and calcium (Ca), the use of plant growth retardants (PGR’s) [e.g. 1,1-dimethyl piperidinium chloride (MC); 2-chloroethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CC); or succinic acid 2,2-dimethyl hydrazide (SADH)], during square initiation and boll setting stage, on growth, seed yield, seed viability, and seedling vigor of cotton.

Response of cereals to cycocel application (Review article)

ABSTRACT- Growth retardants are natural or synthetic chemical substances which are directly applied to crops to alter some structural processes. It is expected that these alterations modify hormonal balance and growth leading to increased yield, improved crop quality or facilitated harvesting. Cycocel (CCC) or chlormequat chloride (2-chloro ethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride) as a synthetic growth retardant has been recommended for wheat since 1960s. Cycocel inhibits gibberellin biosynthesis via blocking ent-kaurene synthesis in the metabolic pathway of gibberellin production, resulting in reduced amounts of active gibberellins and consequent reduction in stem elongation. The stem shortening effect of cycocel in such cereals as wheat seems to be less important, due to release of many dwarf and semi dwarf wheat cultivars. However, using cycocel in cereal fields would be inevitable if its effect on grain yield is definite and this area needs further investigation. Importance of cycocel is greater under environmental stress conditions, and more research needs to be focused on cycocel-induced stress tolerance. In this paper, the current knowledge and possible applications of cycocel, which can be used to improve the growth and yield of cereals, have been reviewed and discussed. The role of cycocel to mitigate the harmful effects of drought and salt stresses in cereals is also examined. Furthermore, various biochemical and physiological processes leading to improved cereal crop production under the influence of cycocel are discussed.

Sana Physiological responses of two grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivars to CycocelTM treatment during drought

ABSTRACTThe plant growth regulator CycocelTM [(2-chloroethyl)trimethylammonium chloride] can be used to produce drought tolerance in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) due to a reduction in the ratio between vegetative growth and fruit production. To evaluate the physiological responses of two grapevine cultivars to drought and CycocelTM treatment, a factorial experiment was conducted in a greenhouse. The factors included irrigation frequency (at 5-, 10-, or 15-day intervals corresponding to no, mild, or severe drought stress), CycocelTM concentration (0, 500, or 1000 mg l–1), and cultivar (‘Rasheh’ or ‘Bidane-Sefid’). Stomatal conductance (gs) the net rate of CO2 assimilation (Anet), the rate of transpiration (Tr), and chlorophyll a and b concentrations decreased in plants exposed to mild or severe water-deficit stress, whereas carotenoid, proline, and total soluble sugar concentrations increased compared to plants with no drought stress. The relative water content (RWC) of leaves declined only under severe drought stress. A reduction in intercellular CO2 concentrations (Ci) occurred under mild drought stress; however, under severe drought stress, Ci values increased. Under mild drought stress, the reduction in the net rate of photosynthesis was related to stomatal closure, whereas under severe drought stress, non-stomatal factors were dominant. Water-use efficiency (WUE) improved under mild drought stress relative to non-stressed plants, but under severe drought, it declined. Foliar applications of CycocelTM resulted in increased Anet, gs, Tr, and WUE values, as well as proline and soluble sugar concentrations. ‘Rasheh’ was more tolerant to drought stress than was ‘Bidane-Sefid’. Foliar applications of CycocelTM, particularly at 1000 mg l–1, mitigated the negative effects of drought stress by increasing Anet, WUE, RWC, compatible solute concentrations, such as proline, soluble sugar, and chlorophyll a and b concentrations.

Coumarin- and indole-S-acetic acid-induced growth and respiration in sunflower as affected by 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride, actinomycin C1, puromycin and diazouracil

Coumarin- and indole-S-acetic acid-induced growth and respiration in sunflower as affected by 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride, actinomycin C1, puromycin and diazouracil

A comparison between the effect of gibberellin and 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride (CCC) on some biochemical processes in bean plants. DDI. Influence on the content of vitamin C

A comparison between the effect of gibberellin and 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride (CCC) on some biochemical processes in bean plants. DDI. Influence on the content of vitamin C

A comparison between the effect of gibberellin and 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride (OCC) on some biochemical processes in bean, plaints. I. Effect on catalase and peroxidase activity

A comparison between the effect of gibberellin and 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride (OCC) on some biochemical processes in bean, plaints. I. Effect on catalase and peroxidase activity

A comparison between the effect of gibberellin and 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride (CCC) on some biochemical processes in bean plants. IV. Effect on the content of the inhibitor of absicisic acid properties

In shoots and in roots of bean seedlings the inhibitor of ABA-like properties was stated. Its level in shoots was increased by CCC and decreased in roots by GA3 treatment. Both -substances had neither synergistic nor antagonistic or additive effects on the level of LABA-like inhibitor. The effect of GA3 and CCC on the level of inhibitor was independent of the infuence of these substances on the growth processes. It has been concluded that the mode of action of GA and CCC in processes regulating the level of abscisic acid in plants is different for each of these substances.

Growth retardants in relation to the germination of seeds. III. The synergistic, inhibitory effect of (2-chloroethyl) trimethylammonium chloride and coumarin on germination of kale seeds, and its reversal by kinetin and gibberellic acid

Growth retardants in relation to the germination of seeds. III. The synergistic, inhibitory effect of (2-chloroethyl) trimethylammonium chloride and coumarin on germination of kale seeds, and its reversal by kinetin and gibberellic acid

Action of (2-chloroethyl) trimethylammonium chloride, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl-tributylphosphonium chloride, and N-dimenthyl-amino-succinamic acid on IAA and coumarin induced growth of sunflower hypocotyl sections

Action of (2-chloroethyl) trimethylammonium chloride, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl-tributylphosphonium chloride, and N-dimenthyl-amino-succinamic acid on IAA and coumarin induced growth of sunflower hypocotyl sections

The effect of 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride (CCC) on the frost resistance of tomato and bean plants

The effect of 2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride (CCC) on the frost resistance of tomato and bean plants

Ionic liquids based on 2-chloroethyltrimethylammonium chloride (CCC) as plant growth regulators

Abstract Plant growth regulator — 2-chloroethyltrimethylammonium chloride (CCC) was converted into ionic liquid in the metathesis reaction. New forms of CCC as ILs were stable in air as well in contact with water and organic solvents. The biological action of the cation (CCC) in ILs was preserved. Type of anion determined hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of the whole molecule and it also influenced the biological activity of the plant growth regulator. All of the investigated salts retarded growth of winter wheat stems and most of them increased yield at the same time, when compared to control and standard 2-chloroethyltrimethylammonium chloride.

EFFECTS OF PACLOBUTRAZOL AND CHLORMEQUAT ON GROWTH PATTERN AND SHOOT PROLIFERATION OF NORMAL AND VARIANT AECHMEA FACIATA BAKER PLANT REGENERATED IN VITRO

ABSTRACT In vitro propagated Aechmea faciata (clones Hip and Bayes) shoot tips regenerated profusely, but exhibited a high incidence (up to 20%) of variant plants. Some of the variation could be observed in vitro. However, after transplanting, the variant somaclones differed significantly, both morphologically and physiologically, from the parent plants. Aechmea variant somaclones are characterized by the development of several leaves on an elongated stem, assuming a grass-like appearance. The leaves are smaller than those of normal plants, non-waxy, and lack thorns and anthocyanin pigmentation. The growth regulators chlormequat ((2-chloroethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride) and paclobutrazol (2RS,3RS)-1 -(chlorophenyl)-4, 4-dimethyl-2- (1H-1, 2, 4-triazol-l-yl)pentane-ol) retarded normal and variant plants' growth, and changed their leaf number and size. Paclobutrazol induced waxy leaf formation and promoted a massive development of adventitious buds on Aechmea variant somaclones transplanted to the green...

English

  A study was carried out to evaluate the effect of plant growth regulators on growth, flowering and bulb production of tulip under Karewa conditions of Kashmir Himalaya during 2009 to 2011. The three different growth regulators; gibberellic acid (GA3) at 100, 200, and 400 ppm, 2-chloroethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CCC) and maleic hydrazide (MH) each at 100, 200 and 500 ppm along with control were applied as dip treatment and foliar spray. Plant height was recorded maximum with 400 ppm GA3(37.32 cm) followed by 200 ppm GA3 (34.13 cm). GA3 at 400 ppm significantly caused earliest flowering (141.30 days) followed by 200 ppm GA3 (142.43 days) as compared to the control (148.93 days), while delayed flowering were observed by 500 ppm MH (152.96 days) followed by 200 ppm MH (151.93 days). The longest blooming period was recorded in 200 ppm GA3 (28.46 days) followed by 400 ppm GA3 (27.76 days) in comparison to the control (21.59 days). The maximum vase life was obtained with 400 ppm GA3 (11.26 days) followed by 200 ppm GA3 (10.43 days) over the control (7.30 days). The maximum number of bulbs and daughter bulbs per plant were recorded with 400 ppm GA3 (1.43 and 3.03) followed by 500 ppm CCC (1.41 and 2.65) over the control (1.07 and 1.72), respectively and thereby enhanced propagation coefficient was obtained in 400 ppm GA3 (258.66%) followed by 500 ppm CCC (237.73%) as against the control (170.00%).   Key words: Tulipa gesneriana, gibberellic acid, 2-chloroethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride, maleic hydrazide, blooming period, propagation coefficient.

Direct and residual effects of plant nutrition’s and plant growth retardants, on cottonseed

Seed quality is one of the most important factors for stand establishment in cotton (Gossypium Sp.), and the use of good-quality seeds is therefore essential to obtain an optimum plant population. Conditions prevailing during seed formation can affect the quality of seed produced, and hence crop establishment in the next growing season. These conditions can affect the germination of the seeds and the ability of the seedlings to emerge from soil. Field experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), foliar application of zinc (Zn) and calcium (Ca), and the use of plant growth retardants (PGR) [e.g., 1, 1-dimethyl piperidinium chloride (MC); 2-chloroethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CC); or succinic acid 2, 2-dimethyl hydrazide (SADH)], during square initiation and boll setting stage, on growth, seed yield, seed viability, and seedling vigor of Egyptian cotton (G. barbadense). Dry matter yield, total chlorophyll concentration, K, Zn and P-uptake plant-1, were increased with the addition of K, foliar application of Zn, and different concentrations of P (576-1728 g·ha-1 of P). Seed yield plant-1 and plot-1, seed weight, seed viability, seedling vigor, and cool germination test performance increased as a result of the addition of the high N-rate (142.8 kg·ha-1 N), the high P-rate (74 kg·ha-1 P2O5), K (47 kg·ha-1 K), and from application of Zn, and Ca and the PGR. From the findings of the present study, band application of such treatments showed improved cotton-seed yield and affected the quality of seed produced, and hence crop establishment in the next growing season.

Effects of Plant Growth Substances on Biomass and Lipid Production in Diatoms

The effects of plant growth stimulating substances like naphthalene-acetic acid (NAA), Gibberellic acid 3 (GA 3 ) and 6-benzylaminopurine (6-BA), or plant growth inhibiting substances like abscisic Acid (ABA) and ((2-chloroethyl) trimethylammonium chloride) (CCC), or their combinations, on biomass and lipid production in Pinnularia gibba var. linearis and Chaetoceros gracilis were studied. When applied at day 1 (stage I), treatments with NAA, GA 3 and 6-BA or their combinations enhanced biomass production but reduced lipid contents. The total lipids, however, were higher in these treatments than that in the control. 6-BA was more effective in stimulating total lipid production. No difference was found among the treatments with NAA, GA 3 or their combination. Adding NAA or GA 3 to 6-BA did not enhance biomass or lipid production compared with 6-BA alone. When applied at day 4 (stage II), growth stimulating substances increased biomass production compared with the control but did not affect total lipid production. Less biomass was obtained when the treatments were applied at day 4 compared with that applied at day 1. Treatments with growth inhibitors like ABA, CCC or ABA + CCC at day 1 reduced biomass production and total lipids, although lipid contents were increased by the treatments. When treated with ABA, CCC and ABA + CCC at day 4 , however, they did not reduce biomass production while increased lipid contents and total lipids.

Flowering in snow tussock (Chionochloa spp.) is influenced by temperature and hormonal cues.

Snow tussocks (Chionochloa spp.) in New Zealand exhibit extreme mast (episodic) seeding which has important implications for plant ecology and plant-insect interactions. Heavy flowering appears to be triggered by very warm/dry summers in the preceding year. In order to investigate the physiological basis for mast flowering, mature snow tussock plants in the field and younger plants in a glasshouse and shadehouse were subjected to a range of manipulative treatments. Field treatments included combinations of warming, root pruning and applications of two native gibberellins (GAs) GA3, which is known to be highly floral inductive and GA4, which is associated with continued floral apex development in another long-day grass. Warming, GA3 alone and especially warming+GA3, significantly promoted flowering, as did applications of GA4 alone and GA4+CCC (2-chloroethyltrimethylammonium chloride, which is a known synergist of GA3-induced flowering in the annual grass, Lolium temulentum L.). Our results provide support for the concept that mast flowering events in tussock species are causally related to high temperature-induced increases in endogenous gibberellin levels. It is likely that GAs (endogenous or applied) promote the continued development of a previously long-day induced floral apex. In addition to the promotion of flowering, applied GA3 also disturbed the plant's innate resource threshold requirements, as shown by the death, over winter, of many non-flowering tillers. Applied GA4 did not show this effect, likely due to its rapid catabolic metabolism to an inactive form. High temperature-induced flowering mediated by elevated levels of endogenous floral-promotive GAs could have important implications for regulating the evolutionary interaction between these masting plants and their seed predators.

In vitro clonal propagation of Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon (barangi): a rare and threatened medicinal plant

An in vitro process for rapid clonal propagation of Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon, a rare and threatened medicinal shrub, has been developed. Nodal stem segments having axillary bud, taken from field-grown plant, showed bud-break within 15 days of culture on modified Murashige and Skoog (MS) (Physiol Plant 15:473–497, 1962) medium supplemented with 0.25 mg/l each of 6-benzylaminopurine and indole-3-acetic acid along with 15 mg/l adenine sulphate (AdS). Regenerated shoots could be further multiplied on the same agarified morphogenetic medium in presence of 0.5 mg/l 2-chloroethyltrimethyl ammonium chloride with increased concentration of AdS, i.e., 30 mg/l. A group of five shoots used as inoculum produced on an average 4.98 new shoots per original shoot after 4 weeks of subculture. Shoots excised from cultures of proliferating shoots were rooted in half-strength MS medium having 1 mg/l indole-3-propionic acid. In vitro rooted shoots—plantlets—grew luxuriantly under field conditions and came to flowering after 10 months of transplantation. The genetic fidelity of in vitro-raised field-grown plants and their mother plant was ascertained by random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. The protocol developed holds good for in vitro cloning of C. serratum.

Self-Incompatibility Involved in the Level of Acetylcholine and cAMP

Elongation of pollen tubes in pistils after self-pollination of Lilium longiflorum cv. Hinomoto exhibiting strong gametophytic self-incompatibility was promoted by cAMP and also promoted by some metabolic modulators, namely, activators (forskolin and cholera toxin) of adenylate cyclase and inhibitors (3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine and pertussis) of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. Moreover, the elongation was promoted by acetylcholine (ACh) and other choline derivatives, such as acetylthiocholine, L-α-phosphatidylcholine and chlorocholinechloride [CCC; (2-chloroethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride]. A potent inhibitor (neostigmine) of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) as well as acetylcholine also promoted the elongation. cAMP enhanced choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity and suppressed AChE activity in the pistils, suggesting that the results are closely correlated with self-incompatibility in L. longiflorum. In short, it came to light that cAMP modulates ChAT (acetylcholine-forming enzyme) and AChE (acetylchoine- decomposing enzyme) activities to enhance the level of ACh in the pistils of L. logiflorum after self-incompatible pollination. These results indicate that the self-incompatibility on self-pollination is caused by low levels of ACh and/or cAMP.

Regulation of self-incompatibility by acetylcholine and cAMP in Lilium longiflorum

Elongation of pollen tubes in pistils of Lilium longiflorum cv. Hinomoto after self-incompatible pollination was here found to be promoted by acetylcholine (ACh) and other choline derivatives, such as acetylthiocholine, l-alpha-phosphatidylcholine and chlorocholinechloride [CCC; (2-chloroethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride]. Moreover, the elongation was promoted by neostigmine, a potent inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase (AChE; acetylcholine-decomposing enzyme) (EC 3.1.1.7.) and activities of this and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT; acetylcholine-forming enzyme) (EC 2.3.1.6.) in pistils were associated with self-incompatibility. The activity of ChAT was lower after self-incompatible as compared with cross-compatible pollination. Application of cAMP promoted ChAT activities in both cases, whereas activity of AChE in pistils after self-pollination was higher than that after cross-compatible pollination and was suppressed by cAMP in both cases. Furthermore, AChE activity was inhibited by treatment with neostigmine or heating. Our results indicate that the self-incompatibility with self-pollination is due to decrease of ACh and cAMP, causing reduction of ChAT and AC (adenylate cyclase) and concise elevation of AChE and PDE (cAMP phosphodiesterase), and therefore suppressed growth of pollen tubes.