14C Dates Research Articles

From the Northern Hajar Foothills to the Batinah Coast – a Geoarchaeological Survey at Saham and Dahwa (Northern Oman)

This geoarchaeological survey was dedicated to (i) the Umm an-Nar (2700–2000 BCE) settlement site of Dahwa and surrounding areas in the foothills of the Hajar Mountains as well as (ii) the coastal area near Saham on the Batinah coastal plain in northern Oman, the latter without focus on a specific cultural epoch. Stratigraphic sections from the proximal coastal plain provide insights into highly dynamic episodic sedimentation patterns with thick units of variable grain sizes and sorting. In one of the stratigraphic profiles in the town of Saham, a small anthropogenic pit or channel was found, interpreted as a pit hearth used by the Samad culture (300 BCE–100/200 CE) based on granulometry, thin-section analysis, clustered macro-charcoals, amorphous organic remains, as well as luminescence and 14C dating. Our coincidental discovery of this site indicates that there might be abundant traces of the Samad culture buried in the thick alluvium, from a period of hydrologically favourable conditions c. 50–300 CE. The Umm an-Nar dating of the Dahwa archaeological site in the foothills of the Hajar Mountains was confirmed for the first time by luminescence dating, although the low dose rate and high scatter of equivalent doses pose substantial challenges to the regional application of this method.

Unravelling 6000 years of interplay among environmental changes, anthropogenic activities, and Vesuvius eruptions in the upper Sarno Plain (Campania, Italy)

Abstract Pollen analysis was carried out on the infilling succession of the Fossa San Vito sinkhole, at the NE foothills of the Sarno Plain (Italy). Four 14C dates and six tephra layers constrain the pollen sequence between ca. 6000 and 500 cal yr BP. A forested environment, with a few signs of human activities, characterizes the pre-protohistoric period (ca. 6000–2750 yr BP). Stability of the arboreal pollen grains to non-arboreal pollen grains (AP/NAP) curve is due to climate-related opposite oscillations of deciduous and evergreen forest. In this period, the pyroclastic products from Neapolitan volcanoes that reached the upper Sarno Plain seem to have affected neither vegetation nor human activities. In the archaic and classic periods (ca. 2750–1500 yr BP), intensive deforestation and increase in anthropogenic indicators indicate the occurrence of grazing and crop activities managed by the main urban centers located in the plain: Pompeii, Stabiae, and Nuceria. After the Pompeii eruption in CE 79, a rapid re-afforestation and decline in all anthropogenic indicators testify to the temporary abandonment of the area, linked to the disastrous demise of the main economic centers. The upper plain was repopulated and exploited in the Late Ancient and Middle Ages (ca. 1700–500 yr BP), as indicated by the increase in all crop and grazing indicators.

To date or not to date? A comparison of different 14C pretreatment methods applied to archeological marine shells from Vale Boi (Portugal)

Abstract Mollusk shells are often found in archeological sites, given their great preservation potential and high value as a multipurpose resource, and they can often be the only available materials useful for radiocarbon (14C) dating. However, dates obtained from shells are often regarded as less reliable compared to those from bones, wood, or charcoals due to different factors (e.g., Isotope fractionation, reservoir effects etc.). The standard acid etching pretreatment for mollusk shells is the most used in many 14C laboratories, although another protocol known as CarDS (Carbonate Density Separation) was introduced just over a decade ago. We compare these two methods with two newly proposed methods for intracellular organic matrix extraction. We applied all four methods to samples selected from different archeological layers of the well-known Upper Paleolithic site of Vale Boi, rich in mollusk specimens throughout the stratigraphic sequence. Here we compare our results to previous dates to determine which of these pretreatment methods results in the most reliable 14C dates. Based on the results of this study, all four methods gave inconsistent ages compared to previous dates and the stratigraphic attribution.

RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGY OF THE OCCUPATION OF THE SOUTHERN COAST OF NAYARIT, MEXICO

ABSTRACT Despite chronicles from the 16th century describing fertile alluvial plains and densely populated wetlands, archaeology in western Mexico has been little studied. The Directorate of Archaeological Salvage (DSA) of National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) has initiated a study of two sites in Costa Canuva, at the southern part of Nayarit state: Becerros and Naranjos. Thirty charcoal and shell samples were radiocarbon (14C) dated to determine occupation history. A Bayesian approach was used to build a chronological modeling from charcoal samples. Charcoal and shell samples found in the same context allowed us to calculate the ΔR values of marine offset for this period. In general, the archaeological sites of this area are divided into three major periods: Formative, Classic, and Postclassic. The 14C dating of Becerros recovered materials provided a chronological framework for the site’s occupation, from cal AD 169–1025, corroborating the ceramic studies in the sense that human settlement activities date from the Formative (300 BC–AD 600) to the Early Postclassic (AD 900–1200). Naranjos started in the Classic period and reached its occupancy peak in the Late Classic. The site’s occupation may have persisted for at least two centuries after the conquest of the Altiplano in 1521. The comparison of charcoal dates and associated shell samples from the Naranjos Unit gave a probability distribution for ΔR, that ranged from 118.5 to 199.5 with a mean value of 159 ± 4, slightly higher than other values obtained at nearby sites.

Dwarfism-related skeletal dysplasia in Italy. Multi-analytic study of 8th century CE human remains from Azzio (Varese) and biocultural implications of a pathology

Skeletal dysplasias are a broad family of genetic disorders, often challenging to diagnose even in clinical literature without molecular analysis. Some cases of possible skeletal dysplasia have also been identified in osteoarchaeological samples, although achieving a definitive diagnosis is fraught with difficulties. This paper presents the analysis of the osteological remains of AZ-III-3, discovered in the archaeological context of the Church of Sant’Antonio and Eusebio in Azzio (Varese province, Italy). The study aims to demonstrate that even with limited skeletal elements, a diagnosis can be hypothesised using macroscopic morphometric and radio diagnostic techniques. These methods, compared with clinical and paleopathological literature, have allowed for the identification of a rare Italian case of dwarfism-related skeletal dysplasia. This contribution seeks to address the biocultural presence of individuals affected by these skeletal dysplasias, listing and discussing all published Italian cases, including that of AZ-III-3, whose chronological framework was established through both archaeological context analysis and 14C dating.

Made of flint, bone and boar’s tusks – burial goods from male grave No. 2 in Świerszczów (Kolonia) 28, Hrubieszów District – attributed to the Malice culture – in the light of traceological analysis

The article presents the results of a traceological analysis conducted on artefacts made of bone, boar’s tusks and flint – the only funerary goods discovered in Grave No. 2 at Świerszczów (Kolonia) Site 28, in which an adult male was buried. Despite the lack of pottery vessels that could indicate cultural affiliation, the grave is attributed to the Rzeszów phase of the Malice culture, i.e., the final, Eneolithic, stage of that culture. This attribution is based on 14C dating and on the presence in the grave of artefacts made of boar’s tusks and flint burins. Microscopic analysis conducted on the discovered artefacts revealed traces related to their production, use and repair on their surfaces. Most items bear traces indicating their usage in processing soft materials, like siliceous (wild and domesticated) plants and hide. Interestingly, the artefacts with holes for hanging – traditionally regarded as adornments in archaeological literature – were also employed in different activities.

NOthing goes toWAste (NOWA): A protocol to optimise sampling of ancient teeth

Advancements in archaeological sciences through innovative scientific techniques applied to ancient human remains have increasingly been transforming the study of the past. Destructive analyses of bioarchaeological or palaeontological specimens such as dental histology, isotopic or elemental analysis of dental mineralised tissues, 14C dating, proteomic analysis or ancient DNA are increasingly being applied to obtain ever more refined past life histories. In tandem with spatially-resolved analyses, mineralised dental tissues, especially enamel, have proven to be ideal archives. The main concern with any of these techniques is the need for some level of destructive sampling and thus damage to specimens. In compliance with the ALARA (As Low [damage] As Reasonably Achievable) principle, we present a standardised protocol (the NOWA protocol) for the optimisation, in terms of minimising the destructive approach, of tooth sampling for histology, biomolecular and biogeochemical analyses. The NOWA protocol enables the collection of multiple datasets through optimised sampling of a single dental specimen, ensuring the preservation of most of the tooth and, to a substantial degree, its morphology. Overall, this approach balances the significant scientific insights from such investigations against the inevitable conservation requirements of valuable archaeological and palaeontological specimens, thus maximising the feasibility of future analyses of individual specimens that need to be evaluated on a case-to-case basis.

AMS 14C Dating of the Sites of Digaru-Kolong River Valley, Assam-Meghalaya Foothills, India

Abstract The present study aims to determine the chronology of the past settlement of the different archaeological sites of the Digaru–Kolong River valley (Assam-Meghalaya Foothills), India, based on accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dates of seven charcoal samples, five potsherds, and five sediment samples. The archaeological record of the study area consists of ground and polished stone axes and adzes, pottery, and standing or buried megaliths. The samples analyzed were excavated from test pits, and an attempt has been made to correlate the findings with the chronology of the neighboring archaeological region. A site reported in the vicinity of the study area is primarily Neolithic. However, the results from our excavations indicate a time frame for the analyzed artifacts of ca. 240 CE to 1379 CE.

Storminess reconstruction in the northeastern Baltic Sea region over the past 7600 years based on aeolian sand influx into coastal bogs

This study aims to reconstruct the changes in storminess during the past 7600 years in the northeastern Baltic Sea region. For storminess reconstructions, aeolian sand influx (ASI) in coastal peat bog deposits was applied as an indicator of the past storminess. We analyzed cores from four peat bogs in the western and northern coastal areas of Estonia: the cores from Hiiumaa N, Hiiumaa SW, Saaremaa and Juminda study sites covered the past 3700, 3750, 2400, and 8400 years, respectively. The sediment chronologies were established using 36 14C dates. Image-analysis method ( ImageJ) was used to count and measure the grain size of all sand particles at every centimeter to gain high-resolution ASI records. Although minor site-to-site variations exist, all four ASI records were in general consistent, suggesting that stormier periods occurred around 7300, 6600, 5900, 4600, 3600, 2900, 2400, 2100, and 1600 cal yr BP and over the last 1200 years. The results and comparisons with other storminess and climate studies indicate a shift in climatic conditions around 2500 cal yr BP when stormy periods became more frequent. The ASI values were also high during the last millennium, suggesting either higher storminess or more suitable transport mechanisms for sand into the coastal bogs: the niveo-aeolian transport mode could have been favored in winters, especially during the Little Ice Age, and human impact on landscapes has probably increased over the past centuries.

Investigation of submarine groundwater discharge into the Baltic Sea through varved glacial clays

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is an important process responsible for transporting terrestrial dissolved chemical substances into the coastal ocean, thereby impacting the marine ecosystem. Despites its significance, there are few studies addressing SGD in the northern Baltic Sea. Here we investigate the potential occurrence of SGD in an area characterized by seafloor terraces formed in varved glacial clay located around Fifång Island, Southern Stockholm Archipelago. We analyzed 222Rn activity and porewater geochemistry in both marine and terrestrial sediment cores retrieved from Fifång Island and its surrounding offshore areas. Results from 222Rn mass-balance calculations, water isotopes, salinity, chloride concentration, and dating (including 14C and helium-tritium dating) indicate that modern groundwater flows through varved glacial clay layers and fractured rocks on Fifång Island and discharges into Fifång Bay. Additionally, the offshore cores reveal a saline groundwater source that, dating of the dissolved inorganic carbon, appears systematically younger than the hosting clay varves dated using the Swedish clay varve chronology. Acoustic blanking in our acquired sub-bottom profiles may be related to this fluid migration. The occurrence of this saline groundwater seems to be independent from the distance to the submarine terraces. Collectively, our study confirms the occurrence of submarine groundwater in the varved glacial clay close to Fifång Island and further offshore. Our findings help establish the significance of submarine groundwater discharge in influencing the past and present coastal environment in the Baltic Sea region.

RADIOCARBON MORTAR DATING INTERCOMPARISON MODIS2—APPROACH FROM THE ZAGREB RADIOCARBON LABORATORY, CROATIA

ABSTRACT The Second International Mortar Dating Intercomparison Study (MODIS2) took place in 2020. Three mortar samples from different sites and chronologies were distributed among various research groups in form of bulk mortar and grain fraction smaller than 150 µm. This is the first time the Zagreb Radiocarbon Laboratory, with support of the Center of Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, took part in the international mortar intercomparison. The initial approach of the Laboratory to mortar dating was to separate 32–63 µm grain fraction and collect three CO2 gas portions by sequential dissolution with acid. After checking the 14C date trends of the gas portions, which should be ascending with later fractions, the one for the first and shortest gas portion was reported as the age of the mortar. However, the first gas portion might not be true age of the mortar, since it still might contain some “dead” carbon. Therefore, data extrapolation from the first two initial CO2 portions was also conducted on the results, but not reported to the intercomparison. Though in general, all the intercomparison reported dates fit the expected historical ages, for one sample, the extrapolated result showed a better match to the historical data.

Peak Height Comparison K-Ar Method Applied to Zao Volcano Bomb Samples Younger than ca. 35 ka

The peak height comparison K-Ar dating method was applied to very young (younger than ca. 35 ka) vesiculated bombs from three pyroclastic units (Komakusadaira Pyroclastics, Kattadake Pyroclastics, and Umanose Agglutinate) from Zao Volcano in northeast Japan. Because the 38Ar/36Ar ratios differed from 0.187, the mass fractionation was corrected for all measurement data. The obtained K-Ar ages are 30.0 ± 32.2 ka (no. 1-1, weakly vesiculated), 37.4 ± 64.8 ka, and 33.0 ± 58.0 ka (nos. 2-1, 2-2, weakly vesiculated) for the samples from Komakusadaira Pyroclastics; 12.6 ± 46.7 ka (no. 3-1, highly vesiculated) for a sample from Kattadake Pyroclastics; and 5.3 ± 44.9 ka, 5.7 ± 14.3 ka (no. 4-1, 4-2, weakly vesiculated), and 17.3 ± 79.3 ka (no. 5-1, moderately vesiculated) for the samples from Umanose Agglutinate on a 1σ error basis. For all cases, the obtained ages’ errors exceed 100%, with none involved within the error range. Therefore, the following age value upper limits are considered statistically significant: no. 1-1 is ≤94.4 ka, 2-1 is ≤167.0 ka, 2-2 is ≤149.0 ka, 3-1 is ≤106.0 ka, 4-1 is ≤95.1 ka, 4-2 is ≤34.3 ka, and 5-1 is ≤175.9 ka, considering 2σ errors. The obtained ages are generally consistent with those previously estimated using 14C dating.

Palynological, tephra, and 14C records from southern Kaitoke, Great Barrier (Aotea) Island, New Zealand, since c. 30,000 cal. yr BP

ABSTRACT Here we present results of the last remaining three, unreported pollen and stratigraphic profiles from our previous investigations on Great Barrier Island from southern Kaitoke. The 14C and pollen data extend the island’s previous maximum pollen-vegetation date from c. 7000 cal. yr BP to close to the end of MIS 3 c. 30,000 cal. yr BP. The oldest 14C date (34,380-28,190 cal. yr BP) and the presence of secondary deposition fragments of Rotoehu Tephra in the basal brown sands and nearby dune deposits implies their formation between c. 30,000 and 45,000 yr BP. The basal sand deposits and palynology in Profile 1 indicate that the site was close to sea-level at the time. Subsequently, the sediments reflect the Last Glacial Coldest Period, characterised by increased Fuscospora pollen. Following the relative stability of the mid-Holocene high sea-level stand, alternations between drier and wetter (freshwater) conditions, with depositional hiatuses, are congruent with evidence for erratic sea-level falls causing blockage of coastal drainage and rear-dune flooding since c. 2,700 cal. yr BP; layers of preserved wood and in-situ stumps overlying firmer palaeosols were followed by fresh-water peats at two of the sites reported here and other, previously reported sites. Polynesian settlement and forest clearance occurs around the time of the 1314 ± 12 AD Kaharoa Tephra, consistent with the project’s previous reports, and with the timing from elsewhere in New Zealand.

Paleo-climatic control on recharge and fresh-salt groundwater distribution in the Red River delta plain, Vietnam

Paleo-climatic induced sedimentation controls present-day recharge and the fresh-salt groundwater distribution in Quaternary delta systems. During sea-level highstands, marine clays with saline pore water were deposited and are interbedded with aquifers of coarse-grained sandy fluvial and shallow marine deposits, laid down during lowstands. The low-permeable marine layers may inhibit recent recharge to deeper aquifers, and thereby limit sustainable use of these freshwater resources. This phenomenon has been investigated in the Red River delta plain, using geophysical borehole logging, transient electromagnetic soundings, groundwater chemistry, stable isotope analysis and 3H and 14C dating of groundwater. Results reveal that marine saline pore water is still present in the Holocene marine clays, implying that fresh water has not entered the clays since their deposition. Therefore, recharge within the delta plain is not occurring and the deeper aquifers are hydraulically disconnected from the upper sandy layers. Today, recharge only occurs from the hinterland. Recharge during the last glacial period has flushed saline pore water from Pleistocene marine clays, but these clays were again affected by saline water during the Holocene transgression. The use of the groundwater resources in the delta plain must be adjusted to the present recharge to be sustainable.

Westerly and Laurentide ice sheet fluctuations during the last glacial maximum

The last glacial maximum (LGM) is widely acknowledged as the most recent cold period representing maximum global ice conditions. However, substantial warming is observed over Northern Hemisphere. Here, we show that the LGM climate shifted from very cold to fairly warm, followed by less cold conditions in the early Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1) phases. Our synthesis of accurate AMS 14C dates refines the exact timing of Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) advances during the early LGM/HS1, constraining the chronology of the LIS decay during the late LGM. The summertime soil temperatures near ice fronts were found to increase by 1.3 °C from the early to late LGM and to decrease by 0.5 °C to the early HS1 phases, consistent with the cold-warm-cool climate patterns. The early/late LGM and early HS1 climates are found to be characterized by frequent cold/warm summers and cold winters since the world’s largest LIS began to decay.

Radiocarbon dating of the natural groundwater in the Ob-Zaisan folded region (Russia)

Groundwater in the Ob-Zaisan folded region (Russia) has significant differences in the stable isotope composition of oxygen and hydrogen, which cannot be explained by the geographical and relief features of the region. A probable reason for these differences could be climatic changes in the study area over the past tens of thousands of years. The method of the radiocarbon dating can be perfectly suited in order to determine such small geological ages. The dating of waters using 14C data gives an understanding of their residence time. It will make it possible to differentiate periods of recharge and accumulation of water in aquifers and track the changes of the water stable isotope composition over time. The estimated water age ranges from 650 to 19,000 years. The enrichment of δD and δ18O values with the decreasing of the water age indicates a gradual warming of the Novosibirsk region climate. These results logically complement the meteorological observations over the last century and may be useful for paleoclimate reconstructions of the region.

Sedimentological evidence of Late Pleistocene Shorelines in Oman

As the climate crisis intensifies, estimating sea-level rise will become increasingly relevant, in particular assessing changes in the relative sea level in different regions. One key to comprehending global sea-level changes is the study of past sea-level highstands. Many regional studies help refine the reconstruction of paleo sea levels globally. Thus far, the Middle East remains understudied.This paper presents evidence for Quaternary sea-level variations along the shores of the western Indian Ocean. Eight coastal outcrops along the northern and eastern coasts of Oman are presented in detail. The sedimentological evidence for sea-level highstands varies within the study area. However, in relation to recent sea-level conditions, all of these marine and beach deposits are now found well above the environments where such formations would typically form. Dating the timing of sea-level highstands remains a challenging task within the study area. In different studies, attempts to 14C date samples from that area were unsuccessful, as the time of sediment deposition lies beyond the dating limit of 14C, precluding a Holocene formation of these sediments. Thus, the sediments are regarded as deposits formed during Pleistocene sea-level highstands, presumably during MIS 5e. For some sections, optically stimulated luminescence dating could provide a solution, as igneous source rocks supply quartz and feldspar. This paper aims to localise eight sea-level related outcrops along the Omani coast and depict their potential for future work, which should include dating and elevation measurements. Through this, our work contributes to the ongoing effort to globally identify records of sea-level changes, as well as providing insights into the regional setting in Oman.

Local hydrology control of radiocarbon in stalagmites from the Kyusendo Cave, Kumamoto, Japan

Stalagmite is an important archive of paleoclimate especially in the region of the East Asian Monsoon. Despite the widespread use of radiocarbon (14C) dating to explore past environmental changes, the contribution of a14C-free carbon fraction leached from soil and/or host rocks during stalagmite formation, known as the dead carbon fraction (DCF), impedes its application to stalagmite chronology. Thus, uranium series dating is preferentially used to determine stalagmite ages. However, both U/Th and 14C dating can be applied to stalagmite samples, U/Th can be used to calibrate the radiocarbon ages by assuming a relatively constant DCF contribution over time. Studies exploring DCF changes from glacial to interglacial periods remain scarce, suggesting that temporal and speleothem-specific DCF studies are needed. Here, we present findings on DCF changes over the last 38 ka in speleothems obtained from southwestern Japan. Our analysis includes measurements of both 14C in drip water and speleothem calcite alongside U/Th dating of three stalagmites collected from Kyusendo Cave, located in southern Japan. The DCFs reconstructed from these stalagmites exhibited variations of 37.8%–73.9% between 4.2 and 38.3 ka, which exceeded the typical DCF values reported previously. Intra-test variations of the DCF values in Kyusendo Cave also revealed differences of up to 30%–40% among the three stalagmites. A higher drip water DCF and dripping rate showed a strong negative correlation, indicating that variations in DCF may reflect changes in local hydrology. The study findings suggest that speleothem-specific and temporally varied DCF should be considered in paleoclimate reconstructions using speleothems.

Investigating soils of barrows in the Rozumice Forest (SW Poland) – Dynamics of soil and landscape evolution in a Central European loess plateau

Soil properties reflect a host of environmental conditions and land-use patterns. Formation of cultural landscapes may well be studied at barrow cemeteries, which give the opportunity of comparing the properties of buried soils, the material building the mounds and the present-day soil cover. Current archaeo-pedological research on Late Neolithic long-barrows indicates a widespread Early Holocene presence of fertile chernozemic soils in the loess zone in Silesia (SW Poland) and their subsequent transformation (en masse) into Luvisols during the Subboreal and Subatlantic. Since the timing of the transformation remains a question – to elaborate the regional chronosequence of soil evolution – we examined the barrow cemetery in the Rozumice Forest, presumably of early medieval age. We assessed the chronology of the burial mounds and properties of the soil record by analysis of ALS data and magnetometer survey, as well as pedological and archaeobotanical analyses and 14C dating of samples from cores extracted from four of the barrows. The results show that the barrows in the Rozumice Forest were most likely built in the Early Middle Ages (7-9th c. AD) using local Luvisol (clay-illuvial soil) material, after vegetation clearance by fire. The buried Luvisols found beneath the mounds bear traces of human land-use – settlement and/or agriculture during the Late Neolithic, and may be polygenetic, being the result of transformation of Early Holocene chernozemic soils.

Late-glacial and Holocene shifts in the mountain landscapes of the Cantabrian range (northern Spain) in response to changing climate, fire occurrence and land use

A new well-dated (18 14C dates on short-lived terrestrial plant macrofossils, 210Pb and 137Cs dating) fine-resolution palaeoecological sequence (pollen, coprophilous fungi, conifer stomata, macrofossils, charcoal) from Lago de Isoba (1400 m a.s.l.) spanning the past c. 17,000 years provides novel insights into the long-term dynamics of the high-elevation Cantabrian landscape in response to climate variability and human activities. Vegetation changes were mainly climate-driven during the Late-glacial and the Early Holocene. Thus, steppe-like environments prevailed during the Greenland Stadial 2.1a (GS-2.1a ≈ ‘Oldest Dryas’). Warmer and moister conditions during the Greenland Interstadial 1 (GI-1 ≈ ’Bølling-Allerød’) enabled successive expansions of Juniperus, Betula and Pinus. Steppe-like vegetation re-expanded during the cooler and drier Greenland Stadial 1 (GS-1 ≈ ‘Younger Dryas’). Afterwards, the Early Holocene warming triggered the rapid spread of mixed pine-broad-leaved deciduous mountain forests. Pollen, stomata and macrofossils indicate continuous, long-lasting (c. 10,850–1250 cal yr BP) local occurrence of Pinus sylvestris stands. The records of Cerealia and Plantago lanceolata pollen types (first Holocene occurrences dated at c. 5100 cal yr BP) evidence increased land use during the Late Holocene, which triggered substantial changes in forest ecosystems. Following a phase of intensified arable and pastoral farming, which involved the use of fire to create and maintain forest clearings, pinewoods expanded and reached their maximum development between c. 3600 and 3300 cal yr BP. Pinus probably outcompeted temporarily other woody taxa thanks to its resilience to low-intensity disturbances. Later, pinewoods underwent a stepwise, human-induced decline ending in their final massive collapse after c. 1150 cal yr BP. The highest intensity of agricultural and pastoral farming took place during the Middle Ages, following maximum fire occurrence. We conclude that the present-day open landscape has been shaped by millennia of land use that partly blurred the impact of climate variability.