The fire service plays a key role in ensuring public safety. The working environment of a firefighter isa burden on health due to numerous risk factors: terrain, weather, chemical, radiological, andbiological factors, as well as mental stress. This narrative review aims to analyse the health risks facedby Polish firefighters, with particular emphasis on psychophysical factors, and to assess theeffectiveness of the protective measures in place. A review of the literature available in PubMed,Google Scholar, Research Gate, Scopus databases was conducted, including publications from 2020to 2025. The selection was made in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. The review included55 publications, exclusively peer-reviewed scientific articles (Polish and foreign). Firefighters areexposed to many non-obvious, immediate, and long-term health risks that require a systematicapproach and the implementation of more effective prevention measures.

The article considers the research problem: How to effectively and reliably estimate the amount ofenergy transferred and dissipated in soft tissues (or their simulants), considering their nonlinear,viscoelastic, velocity-dependent mechanical properties, as well as differences resulting from the useof experimental methods and simplified energy models? The basis for addressing this topic is thecomplex structure of soft-tissue simulants, which exhibit a nonlinear stress-strain response anda strong dependence on strain rate. Their response to bullet penetration is difficult to describe usingsimple equations based on kinetic energy; it is necessary to consider cavitation, friction, and viscosity.Currently, we can estimate the energy deposited in soft-tissue simulants using experimental methodsthat record the projectile’s trajectory during penetration and estimate its velocity. These methodsprovide experimental data, but they are costly, and it is difficult to compare results due to the differentresearch methodologies used by the teams, making standardisation difficult and often yieldingdivergent results. The main research questions were as follows: What are the differences betweenexperimental methods in estimating the energy dissipated in tissue simulants? To develop the article,a method of analysis and criticism of the literature was used, involving a systematic, structuredreview of previous scientific studies and existing publications to answer the question posed. Theresult obtained was an answer to the question posed.

This study aimed to analyse how professional firefighters of the State Fire Service in Poland experienceand cope with stress, and to identify factors that facilitate or hinder their psychological adaptationafter exposure to traumatic events. The research problem focused on answering the question: Whatcoping strategies can be observed among State Fire Service officers, and which factors influence theeffectiveness of their psychological adaptation following traumatic incidents? The study employeda mixed-methods approach, including a review of relevant scientific literature and availableinstitutional reports, as well as a survey of firefighters. The Mini-COPE inventory, adapted to thePolish context by Juczyński and Ogińska-Bulik, was used to assess the coping strategies applied bythe participants. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of firefighters’ psychologicalfunctioning in situations of chronic and acute stress and highlight the importance of targetedpreventive measures and support systems within operational services.

The article addresses the issue of canine support in water rescue in Poland, focusing on the analysisof the training and certification system for rescue dogs and their handlers, implemented by entitiesauthorised to perform water rescue. This study omits issues related to the use of dogs to detect thescent of human corpses under water.The research problem boils down to the question of what model of canine support should be appliedin the national water rescue system in order to effectively utilise the potential of dogs and increase theeffectiveness of rescue operations. hypothesis has been put forward that the most effective solutionwould be model based on consistent legal framework, multi–level training and certification system,and the integration of the activities of state structures and non-governmental organisations.It was assumed that the current legal and organisational situation does not fully correspond to rescuepractice, while the experience of non-governmental organisations and international standards canprovide valuable reference for the development of national model.The legal status and organisational and social challenges that hinder the effective functioning ofdog–handler teams in water rescue operations were discussed. The prospects for the developmentof canine support were also presented, pointing to the need to adapt training and certificationrequirements to the real working conditions of teams at bathing sites. The need to distinguishbetween water work, canine sports and professional water rescue was emphasised, which willallow harmonious development of each of these areas. The article draws attention to theimportance of public education and promoting responsible approach to working with rescuedogs. In addition, attention is paid to identifying systemic barriers and potential directions forthe development of this form of rescue support in the context of national institutional conditionsand rescue practice.

The implementation of tasks within crisis management structures requires solid substantivepreparation and extensive competencies. The introduction presents the crisis management processrelated to a crisis situation that may lead to a crisis. Research has been cited indicating that one of thefactors influencing the effectiveness of tasks performed by those managing crisis managementstructures is interpersonal competencies related to character traits and acquired duringtraining.The article presents an extensive analysis of literature on crisis management and crisis response. Italso includes the authors’ observations and experiences. The empirical research was preceded bynumerous interviews and conversations with the management of the State Fire Service in the contextof crisis management activities.The study involved 106 people, including officers of the State Fire Service (SFS) and representativesof other services responsible for responding to crisis situations. A proprietary questionnaire covering17 psychological and behavioural traits was used for the measurement. Intergroup differences andinternal correlations were analysed using nonparametric tests, Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient,and exploratory factor analysis. The results of the study confirm that the effectiveness of rescueoperations management depends on the balance between the cognitive-intellectual and moralvolitionaldimensions of leadership. SFS officers scored higher in terms of decisiveness, self-control,and responsibility compared to the control group. The conclusions indicate the need for the systematicinclusion of leadership competence assessment in the process of education and professionaldevelopment of the management staff of the State Fire Service and other entities performing tasks inthe crisis management system.

The growing importance of electrochemical energy storage systems (ESS) in modern energyinfrastructure brings new challenges in terms of fire safety. ESS storage facilities, especially thosebased on lithium-ion batteries, have a specific risk profile, which justifies the need for detailed fireprotection regulations. The aim of this article is to conduct a comparative analysis of domestic andforeign fire safety requirements for ESS. A review of professional literature and an analysis ofnormative documents were conducted: Polish regulations and standards (including PN-EN IEC62933-5-2) and international guidelines – including NFPA 855, regulations in Singapore and CFADGMR (Australia). Requirements concerning the location of installations, fire resistance, firedetection and extinguishing systems and ventilation were compared. The analysis showed that theamendment to Polish regulations is a step forward, yet significant gaps still exist: Poland has notadopted a requirement of carrying out risk analysis, there are no regulations on fire water management,and the approach to fire testing is limited. The identified differences and imprecise requirementsallow the formulation of recommendations for further improvement of the regulations. Based on theanalysis, recommendations were formulated for further legislative and technological work, which iscrucial to ensure comprehensive protection of ESS against fire hazards. It was emphasised that takinginternational experience into account in shaping national safety requirements could increase theeffectiveness of Polish ESS regulations.

The objectives of this study were: to investigate and compare the mass concentration of size-resolvedparticulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, PM10, and PM35) in indoor air of three rooms of a selected firestation in Poland (i.e. common room, laundry room, and garage); to compare them with the massconcentration of size-resolved PM in a single-family residential building; and to estimate andcompare the health exposure of occupants of these two building types related to measured PMconcentrations. At each point, measurements were conducted for 12 hours a day for 7 days in heating(26/01/2025–24/02/2025) and non-heating (27/05/2025–27/06/2025) seasons using Grimm 11-Daerosol spectrometer (optical method). As indicated by the data, elevated concentrations of PM wereobserved in both the fire station and the single-family house during the heating season whencompared to the non-heating season. During the heating season, the mean PM concentrationsranged from 17.1 to 68.0 μg/m3 and 17.5 to 48.4 μg/m3, while during the non-heating season, theyranged from 6.8 to 42.4 μg/m3 and 9.2 to 35.5 μg/m3 for the fire station and single-family house,respectively. At each measurement point, with the exception of the laundry room during the heatingseason, the majority of the PM mass was accumulated as coarse particles (55% to 72%). The exposureassessment demonstrated that the highest values of PM deposition in the lung alveoli were recordedfor the laundry room, garage, and single-family house during the heating season and for the laundryroom during the non-heating season. The results obtained in this study can be used in future studiesto assess the health risks of firefighters exposed to air quality inside fire stations. They can also beused to designate directions for further research in this area.

This publication presents the results of extinguishing tests on small sodium fires, weighing 30 g(d=3.5 cm) and 108 g (d=9.6 cm), using NaCl-impregnated cellulose towel. The study demonstratedthat the salt-saturated charred layer, formed by contact between cellulose and burning sodium,effectively isolates oxygen from the metal surface and inhibits the combustion process, as reflected bythe significant temperature drop observed at various distances from the burning metal surface. It wasfound that mechanical damage to the oxide layer results in fire intensification, especially when thereis contact between burning sodium and reactive Na2O2. Unlike traditional extinguishing saltsintended for extinguishing group D fires, the use of NaCl-impregnated cellulose towel, due to itslightness, practically prevents damage to the oxide layer without additional mechanical action,further reducing the risk of fire development. The tests show unexpectedly high extinguishingefficiency (Ee=1.46 kg/m2= 0.23 kg/kg), but this requires verification in other types of extinguishingtests due to the specific nature of the presented investigation.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs, drones) are being increasingly recognised as valuable tools inemergency response. In water rescue, their potential lies in accelerating detection, expandingsituational awareness and reducing risks to rescuers. However, systematic evidence from Central andEastern Europe is scarce. This article presents a retrospective, nationwide cross-sectional study ofdrone-assisted interventions by the State Fire Service (SFS) in Poland between 2021 and 2024. Datawere obtained from the Decision Support System (DSS) of the SFS and cross-verified with annualbulletins and official statistics. Incidents were identified by predefined water-related keywords.Variables included incident type: local threats (LT) or fire, season, year, intervention duration andsearch outcomes. Statistical analyses were performed using non-parametric tests with a significancethreshold of p < 0.05.A total of 1,155 drone-assisted interventions have been recorded, of which 169 (14.6%) were classifiedas water-related. Most were LTs (95.9%), with person searches as the dominant category. The numberof interventions increased steadily year by year (from 15 in 2021 to 93 in 2024). Mean interventiontimes varied significantly across years (p < 0.001) and seasons (p = 0.004), with the longest durationsin summer and the shortest in winter. No statistically significant association has been ascertainedbetween season and search outcome (χ = 8.39; p = 0.211). Regional differences were evident in boththe number and duration of interventions. The use of UAVs in Polish water rescue operations keepsrising, particularly in search missions. While UAVs enhance detection and monitoring, finaloutcomes depend on broader clinical and environmental factors. Findings support the systematicintegration of UAVs into national water rescue protocols, with emphasis on seasonal and regionalresource allocation, interoperable coordination between SFS, VWRS and SAR, and standardisedmission documentation to strengthen public health impact.

The increasing generation of biodegradable residues from the food service sector highlights the needfor ecotoxicological assessment to support circular waste management. This study evaluated thetoxicity of spent coffee grounds (SCG) using chemical characterisation and bioassays with plants(Sinapis alba, Lepidium sativum, Lactuca sativa), aquatic invertebrates (Daphnia magna) and soilinvertebrates (Eisenia fetida). The absorbance analysis of SCG aqueous extracts showed increasingDOC with concentration, reaching 869 mg C kg- at 15% dilution, and indicated the predominance offulvic compounds. Phytotoxkit assays revealed species-specific responses: S. alba was found to be themost sensitive, demonstrating potent inhibition at higher SCG levels, whereas L. sativum and L. sativaexhibited stimulation at moderate concentrations (maximum GI ≈ 210% at 5% SCG for L. sativum).D. magna displayed acute sensitivity (EC50 ≈ 4.1%), whereas E. fetida results were inconsistent due tohigh control mortality. Overall, the results demonstrate that SCG can act both as a stimulant and aninhibitor depending on concentration and organism, emphasising the importance of multi-speciesbioassays for risk assessment and potential valorisation of SCG in environmental applications.