Abstract While abundant studies have examined cognitive efforts required for metaphor comprehension, what happens during metaphor production remains underexplored. Based on 19 triadic conversations produced by 57 participants, this paper examines conversational behaviours associated with the use of metaphors and deliberate metaphors in particular. The data includes 2,631 conversational turns, of which 690 contained metaphors and 45 had deliberate metaphors. Four conversational behaviours were examined: turn duration, within-turn pause duration, between-turn gap duration, and co-speech gestures. Compared with turns without metaphors, those with metaphors lasted significantly longer and were more likely to co-occur with gestures, whereas differences in within-turn pause and between-turn gaps were not significant. The results suggest that metaphor production involves more cognitive efforts or a stronger awareness of the ongoing communication; however, metaphor processing by the listener does not necessarily take more time. The effect of metaphor deliberateness was not significant in any of the conversational behaviours.

The Review of Cognitive Linguistics (published under the auspices of the Spanish Cognitive Linguistics Association) offers an international forum for the publication of original high-quality research from a cognitive perspective in all areas of linguistic conceptualization and communication. Fruitful debate is encouraged with neighboring academic disciplines as well as with other approaches to language study, particularly functionally-oriented ones. Volumes 1–7 (2003–2009) were published under the title Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics. RCL publishes its articles Online First.

Abstract In this paper we explore conceptual overlap in two signed languages. Our data comes from natural discourse in Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) and Argentine Sign Language (LSA). Our analysis relies on theoretical constructs derived from cognitive grammar, which posits just three core elements: semantic structures, phonological structures, and symbolic structures which are associations of the first two. Signed languages use symbolic structures we call Places to conceptualize space in signed discourse. We show that one way signed languages express conceptual overlap is with phonological overlap: placing signs at the same spatial location. Our data demonstrates how Places establish nominal referents and discourse topics, create associations among referents, and structure the flow of information. We also offer an account of agreement as a type of conceptual overlap expressed by phonological overlap. A currently popular account of agreement in signed languages argues that these expressions consist of “fusions” of language and gesture. Our account relies solely on linguistic elements and is compatible with that of agreement as multiple symbolization.

Abstract The present study investigates the influence of Mexican Spanish similative (e.g., he swims like a fish) and pretence constructions (e.g., he swims as if he were a fish) on those found in four Mesoamerican languages: Huasteca Nahuatl, Papantla Totonac, San Gabriel Huastec, and Uxpanapa Chinantec. Using predictive modeling, we demonstrate that these indigenous languages have not only borrowed the markers komo ‘like’ and komo si ‘as if’ from Mexican Spanish, but have also adopted the lexical preferences (e.g., verb lemmas) associated with these constructions. However, we also identify a number of syntactic differences in how locative and non-locative NPs are treated within similative and pretence constructions in these languages. These findings suggest that, in language contact scenarios, constructions are rarely replicated intact from one language to another. Furthermore, our analysis reveals that while the similative and pretence markers themselves are outcomes of matter replication, the verb lemmas in these constructions result from pattern replication.

Abstract The study provides a critical overview of metaphor identification methodologies and suggests further improvements to one of the most common procedures known as MIPVU. It presents the theoretical background to two major tasks of metaphor identification: the segmentation of text into linguistic units and determining their metaphoricity. The latter includes the demarcation of senses and the specification of source and target domain meanings. Difficulties involved in annotation include the establishment of boundaries to delimit metaphorical meaning-carrying elements, metaphoricity associated with word sequences rather than individual lexis, the treatment of compounds, particles and nominal inflections, as well as conflating or overlapping sense descriptions in the dictionary. Many of these issues are illustrated with a detailed analysis of Hungarian examples. A flexible but principled application of the procedure is recommended depending on the specific research agenda. The study advocates the utilization of the notion of decomposability in determining the metaphorical status of idiom-internal words and suggests a modification in MIPVU’s treatment of compounds. Decisions taken early in the process of metaphor analysis have repercussions in later stages when source domains and mappings are identified or quantitative analysis is conducted.

Abstract Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) uses metaphor extensively in its exercises with clients ( Hayes et al., 2012 ). This paper analyzes a corpus of ACT defusion exercises to identify the patterns of construal they typically evoke. Findings show frequent use of the Divided-Person metaphor ( Lakoff, 1996 ), with the two aspects of the mind (the Self and Subject) operating within an actual or potential force dynamic (FD) configuration ( Talmy, 2000 ). Two main types of configurations emerge. Deliteralization exercises show shifts in the balance of strength between the Subject and Self. Observation exercises draw a contrast between a steady-state FD configuration involving a coerced Agonist and a secondary steady-state FD pattern in which a potentially coercing force was no longer impinging on the Agonist. The results demonstrate how FD and the Divided-Person metaphor systematically combine to construe mental phenomenology and dispositions. The analysis thus sheds light on the conceptual structures underlying therapeutic discourse in ACT.

Abstract This paper examines the role of manner-of-motion verbs in shaping subjective temporal perception and emotional resonance. Through four complementary studies, we explore how these verbs influence the conceptualization of time, examining their use in literal and metaphorical (temporal) contexts. Our findings reveal that faster verbs (e.g., fly, zoom ) evoke dynamic and engaging temporal experiences, often linked to positive emotions and greater agency. In contrast, slower verbs (e.g., crawl, drag ) convey passivity, monotony, and negative emotions, reflecting tedious or constrained experiences of time. These effects are amplified in metaphorical contexts, where manner verbs encode emotional and experiential nuances that transcend their literal meanings. We also find that participants prefer manner verbs over path verbs (e.g., go, pass ) in emotionally charged temporal contexts, as manner verbs capture the experiential and emotional qualities of time more effectively. These findings highlight the interplay between language, motion, and emotion in shaping temporal perception, offering insights into how linguistic framing influences subjective experiences of time.

Abstract This paper examines whether observers use gestural information to decide the meaning of the polysemous verb touch in ambiguous contexts. To address this question, three studies were carried out. Study 1 tests whether observers could accurately distinguish the meaning of the verb touch just by looking at hand gestures. Study 2 explores which gesture location and handshape combinations are associated with the physical and emotional meanings of touch . Study 3 investigates whether observers decide the meaning of touch faster when they see a co-speech hand gesture and whether reaction time varies depending on the specific gesture combination observed. The main findings illustrate how the modality of gesture helps observers to disambiguate the meaning of a polysemous word such as the verb touch . Thus, this research shows that location and handshape are key components that bias the meaning of touch when the verbal message is ambiguous or absent.

Abstract This paper revisits the constructional and functional properties of the Korean causal connective -( u ) n nameci . The paper argues that -( u ) n nameci is used when the speaker is reconstructing and evaluating past situations; focal situations that have already occurred and/or been processed are reviewed and framed as causally related by a narrator (Subject of Consciousness) who construes the situations from a conceptual distance. A usage-based investigation supports this argument, demonstrating that -( u ) n nameci subjectively encodes conceptual distance, often conveyed through quotation or emphasis, between the speaker and the focal situations. It uses the framework of the Basic Communicative Spaces Network (BCSN; Sanders et al., 2009 ) to model the construal process of -( u ) n nameci in examples with various degrees of subjectivity, and further demonstrates that it conveys higher degrees of subjectivity than the prototypical Korean causal connective - ese .