The Nakdong River delta comprises an upper unconfined freshwater aquifer and a lower confined saline aquifer, where excessive pumping may induce saline migration, requiring systematic management.In this study, cross-correlation analysis, flow-direction logging, hydrochemical profiling, principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), vertical EC profiling, and pumping tests were used to differentiate the characteristics of the upper and lower aquifers.The PCA/HCA results indicate that the two aquifers form a dual-flow system with strong hydraulic isolation.The unconfined aquifer (mean EC = 1,853 S/cm) is characterized by oxidizing conditions, Na + /Cl - > 1, HCO 3 -/Cl -> 1, whereas the confined aquifer (mean EC = 19,822 S/cm) contains groundwater of post-Pleistocene seawater origin (Na + /Cl - 1, HCO 3 -/Cl -< 1, elevated Mg 2+ ), exhibits mildly reducing conditions, and maintains stable EC during pumping.Pumping tests revealed short 1 values and distinct initial drawdowns (0.21-1.0 m) in the confined aquifer due to elastic response, while the unconfined aquifer showed no clear elastic response.These findings confirm that the study area comprises a dual structure with an overlying unconfined aquifer and an underlying confined aquifer, highlighting the need for careful management of groundwater abstraction from the lower aquifer.

Gender equality is widely recognized as a fundamental prerequisite for sustainable development, social well-being, and inclusive growth.Among the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the United Nations, SDG 5 explicitly underscores gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls as essential enabling conditions for achieving the broader 2030 Agenda.Despite this global commitment, gender disparities continue to persist as deep-rooted structural challenges across many scientific disciplines, including geoscience.Geoscience plays a pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing contemporary challenges, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, sustainable resource management, disaster risk reduction, and environmental protection.However, the historical contributions of women to geoscience, as well as their current and potential future roles, have frequently been undervalued, overlooked, or insufficiently documented.Although recent decades have witnessed a notable increase in the number of women entering geoscience and other STEM fields at both undergraduate and doctoral levels, this growth has not translated proportionally into representation in senior professional positions.Empirical evidence consistently points to a pronounced "leaky pipeline," in which women remain significantly underrepresented in permanent academic appointments, leadership roles, and decision-making bodies within the geoscience community.This Special Issue of Episodes, "Empowerment of Women in Geoscience toward the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 5 (Gender Equality)," emerges from the recognition that addressing gender disparity in geoscience is not only a matter of equity, but also a necessary condition for scientific excellence, innovation, and sustainable development.At the professional level, gender imbalances limit the diversity of perspectives, restrict scientific creativity, and, ultimately, weaken the capacity of geoscience to respond effectively to global environmental and societal challenges.The motivation for this Special Issue was twofold.First, it aims to critically examine the structural, institutional, and sociocultural factors that hinder women's full participation and advancement in geoscience.Second, it highlights successful initiatives, best practices, and role models that can inspire and support the next generation of geoscientists, regardless of gender, while contributing to the development of more inclusive and equitable scientific communities.

The paper provides an historical review of the transition from geology as private pursuit for women to professionalization and their ensuing struggle for access to the professional world of geoscientists.Geology was popular among women in early 19 th -century Britain.The still non-professionalized scientific culture allowed these women some participation.However, they were excluded from universities and membership in the more prestigious societies.In the second half of the 19 th century, the increasing professionalization of the natural sciences pushed women out of the field in the UK as well, and globally the first professional female geologists only appeared after university education became available to women.By this time, women were already seen as unwelcome competition by their future male colleagues.The typical early professional female geologist was unmarried and worked in specialized fields considered particularly 'feminine', such as paleontological collection curator, micropaleontologist, petrographer, computer or chemical laboratory technician, or she worked in niche specializations without competition.Possibly due to language barriers, but little is known about female geoscientists from non-Western cultures.To this day, female scientists struggle for equal participation and recognition.

of the IUGS International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences (INHIGEO).Trained as a geologist she became the first historian of geology in Brazil and the first historian of Brazilian geology.This paper outlines her personal account of her education and motivations, career choices, her achievements, and her involvement with and presidency of IUGS INHIGEO.She has made major contributions to the history of geology, history of science and empire, and science education in STEM fields.Her story especially highlights the challenges and successes of women in the field of the geological sciences and those who have created cross-disciplinary bridges within the history of science.Silvia Figueira, through her efforts in raising awareness of the role of studies on the development of geology, has been instrumental in forging links between the Unions on Geology and the History of Science for the benefit of both communities.

Gender disparity is a global issue affecting every field around the Globe.The disparity is higher in STEM subjects, including Geosciences.South Korean government has implemented many measures to reduce disparity in STEM subjects, and gender equality at the youth level improved significantly.Yet the numbers are still low in age 40 and diminish at higher ranks: women in age 30-40 are pressurized by sociocultural imbalance issues (childcare), and by organizational restrictions (glass ceiling) after 40.Thus, it is critical to connect sociocultural measures on gender disparity in households and organization reform to achieve overall gender equality at all levels.Previous studies show that promoting women's leadership in STEM (including Geosciences) can help in closing the gender gap by increasing role models for female students.We analysed successful good practices, such as collaboration within developing strategies through ERASMUS + projects with western countries and eastern countries.Closing the gender gap in STEM areas should transcend borders, by implementing a multilateral and international focus for building networks that will reduce the gap within academia and research fields, also in higher level roles by supporting women's careers towards a new, equal paradigm within Geoscience, as part of STEM fields.

The hydrochemical types of geothermal water is primarily influenced by the types of minerals of the surrounding rock in geothermal systems.Under the same geothermal geological and hydrogeological conditions, the hydrochemical characteristics of geothermal water are similar.However, multiple types of geothermal water with different TDS contents coexist in western Guangdong, Southern China, which is difficult to explain by a single hydrogeochemical mechanism.This paper employs hydrochemical and isotope analysis to investigate the mechanism of the different hydrochemical types of geothermal water.Hydrochemical types of geothermal water are HCO 3 -Na, SO 4 -Ca, SO 4 -Na, and Cl-Na, with the TDS values varying from 102.24 mg/L to 9343.76 mg/L.The reservoir temperature ranges from 129.7 to 132.4 estimated by the quartz geothermometer (with maximum steam loss), and the maximum circulation depth is 3.65 km.Water-rock interaction simulations illustrate that TS10, D1, and D2 have mixed with seawater.TS3 and TS4 have undergone additional dissolution of evaporite minerals.Additionally, other geothermal waters have been rapidly heated and only undergone minor mineral dissolution.The conceptual model suggests that the differences in groundwater circulation processes and water-rock interactions are the main factors for the formation of different hydrochemical types of geothermal water in the same zone.