Climate change is expected to intensify abiotic and biotic stressors in European forests, making the selection of tree genotypes less susceptible to damage a critical priority for sustainable forestry. We evaluated long-term clonal variation in damage susceptibility and growth performance of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in three clonal plantations (aged 50 to 59 years) located in Latvia. More than 2,100 trees representing 20–80 vegetatively propagated clones per site were evaluated. Data on tree growth (height, diameter), green crown ratio, survival, and multiple types of stem damage – stem cracks, bark beetle (Ips typographus) infestation, and cervid browsing damage – were collected during two inventories, 4–9 years apart. Clonal differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05) for tree diameter and stem crack incidence in all plantations (8–23% of trees affected). Bark beetle damage reached up to 9% of trees and showed clonal variation in one plantation. On average, the length of cracks on the trunk was 0.6–1.9 m, depending on the plantation. Survival between inventories exceeded 89% overall but differed among clones in relation to damage incidence. Fast-growing genotypes tended to have more cracks, but at the clone level, there was no consistent trade-off between productivity and damage incidence. Green crown ratio, a key trait reflecting tree architecture, was significantly associated with damage resistance: trees with a live crown ratio ≥ 70% had markedly lower incidence of cracks and bark beetle attacks. Several clones combined high growth (up to 26% above plantation mean) with low damage occurrence. These results demonstrate significant and consistent clonal differences and support the feasibility of selecting productive and trunk-damage-resistant genotypes for use under uncertain future climate conditions. In practice, maintaining or selecting crown types that retain ≥70% green crown may represent a viable strategy – from both a genetic and silvicultural perspective – for reducing the risk of trunk damage and increasing the climate resilience of spruce plantations. Keywords: tree breeding; clonal forestry; climate-smart forestry; bark beetle damage; trunk cracks; cervid browsing damage

In this study, we present the results of an investigation of the long-term dynamics of natural silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) forests within the Belavezhskaya Pushcha National Park, Belarus. Six sample plots represent two primary forest associations: Tilio-Carpinetum and Querco roboris-Pinetum sylvestris. All stands originated from clear-cuttings in the early 20th century, and their age varies from 84 to 111 years as of 2023. The study spans from 1972 to 2023, encompassing the observation of various forest parameters, including diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height, canopy positioning, living ground cover, and the shrub layer, conducted multiple times (from 2 to 4). Successional patterns were observed to develop in three main directions, contingent upon the initial composition of the forest stand. In most cases, Betula pendula forests transition directly to spruce (Picea abies) forests or through the short (around 20 years) European aspen Populus tremula phase. The emergence of broadleaved forests in their place typically occurs no earlier than 200 years after logging, coinciding with the period of decline of Picea abies due to droughts and bark beetle attacks. Exceptions are observed in forest phytocenoses thriving on more fertile soils, where Quercus robur and/or Acer platanoides can swiftly replace mixed Populus tremula-Betula pendula stands after a century of development. Consequently, a considerable reduction in Betula pendula forests within Belavezhskaya Pushcha is anticipated in the forthcoming decades, gradually replaced by Picea abies and mixed broadleaved forests. These findings are significant for predicting the stand structure, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration potential of unmanaged forests. Keywords: long-term study; permanent plots; Betula pendula; DBH structure; regeneration; succession

High-quality seedling production is crucial in forestry activities to enhance the success of planting efforts and ensure the sustainability of the species. In this study, the effects of different concentrations (0, 4, 8, and 12 mL/L) of nanotechnological liquid organomineral fertiliser on the morphological characteristics and seedling quality of two-year-old oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) seedlings were investigated. Morphological characteristics measured in the study included seedling height, root collar diameter, number of side branches, root length, root number, as well as fresh and dry weights of shoot, root, and seedling. For seedling quality evaluation, dry root percentage, sturdiness quotient, shoot-root ratio, and the Dickson quality index were used. The results showed that the highest fertiliser concentration (F12 ml/l) produced the most favourable outcomes in terms of both morphological characteristics (e.g. 42.16 cm for seedling height, 8.42 mm for root collar diameter) and quality criteria (e.g. 0.39 for the Dickson quality index). Furthermore, correlation analysis revealed strong positive correlations between simple measurable parameters, such as seedling height and root collar diameter and quality indices, such as the Dixon Quality Index, indicating their potential as meaningful indicators in quality assessment. The study results demonstrate that fertiliser applications can significantly contribute to producing high-quality seedlings. Keywords: fertilisation; morphological characteristics; quality index; seedling quality

Nowadays, forestry is undergoing rapid changes, requiring more timely and accurate data on forest resources for effective management. In response, Lithuania’s forest management planning system is evolving to address these needs. This study presents a critical assessment of the forestry inventory and management planning system in Lithuania, aimed at summarising and explaining its evolution, current status and identifying areas for further improvement. To reconstruct historical context, desktop research, including secondary data analyses from reports, research articles, manuals, and legal publications, was pursued in the study. A quantitative questionnaire survey and qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted to analyse the key factors influenced the development of Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning system, evaluating stakeholders’ perspectives on strengths and weaknesses of the current system and exploring future development options. Current forest management planning is based on stand-wise forest inventory, conducted once per decade in a given area using combination of orthophotographic map interpretation and predominantly visual estimation of compartments’ properties in the field. The system is the product of two centuries of evolution, shaped by a focus on forestry on growing even-aged stands according to classical German principles of normal forests, largely command-and-control forest governance, the dominance of state forest ownership and a preferences for centralised planning with some flexibility in approaches to forest management. In general, the current system is considered adequate in quality for forest management planning, with major strengths in data completeness, user-friendliness, and the quality of forest compartment identification and weaknesses in the volume estimation. Key limitations of current forest inventory and management system are associated with its dependence on methodologically and technologically outdated implementation. The system is the product of two centuries of evolution, shaped by a focus on forestry on growing even-aged stands according to classical German principles of normal forests, largely command-and-control forest management, the dominance of state forest ownership, and a preference for central planning with some flexibility in approaches to forest management. Continuous forest inventory, characterised by seamless and ongoing data updates rather than periodic assessments, is considered a solution to completely replace the conventional inventory in coming years. The transition, incorporating advanced technologies, is anticipated to enhance most forest inventory attributes. However, this shift is accompanied by significant methodological, technological and legal issues. Overcoming these barriers is essential for effective adaptation of forest management planning to current needs. Keywords: forest inventory; management planning; desktop research; questionnaires; in-depth interview

Greenery plays a crucial role in shaping the urban environment and its resilience to climate change. Urban trees are the most noticeable and long-living part of urban greenery, but poor management decisions or negligence pose a significant risk to the health of urban tree stands. To successfully plan the maintenance and renewal of urban trees, we need to be able to assess their condition. In this study, we examine what data on urban trees are available in Estonia to date, as well as the quality of these data. The study aims to determine whether the available data are sufficient to plan future maintenance and renewal of urban tree stands. As a case study, we examined the available dataset on Kaarli puiestee and assessed its usability. Kaarli Boulevard (Kaarli puiestee) is one of the most researched historical urban tree stands in Estonia. After examining the available materials, the following concerns emerged: 1) data retrieval is difficult; 2) retrieving the necessary information from the materials is time-consuming; 3) different methods have been used in the surveys, which means that there is no systematic longitudinal study that could be used to monitor changes in the condition of the trees and to assess the impact of different factors. Planning of future maintenance cannot solely rely on using this existing material as input, because the data is not uniformly comparable. It is therefore essential to improve the quality of the data by making it readily available, ensuring data harmonisation and keeping it up to date. Keywords: urban trees; historical boulevards; tree surveys; greenery; dendrology

Nanoparticle pollution results from the release of nanoparticles into the environment, which are widely used in many areas today. For this reason, studies on nanoparticle pollution have gained significant momentum in recent years. However, studies on the effects of nanoparticle pollution on forest ecosystems and forest trees are restricted. The current study aimed to reveal the effects of copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles, which are known for their high toxicity compared to other metal oxide nanoparticles, on the seed germination and seedling traits of Prunus avium. Seeds from 15 geographically diverse Turkish populations were treated with CuO nanoparticle solutions at five concentrations (200, 400, 600, 800, and 1,000 mg/L) to evaluate nanoparticle effects. Multiple growth parameters were quantified, including germination success (rate and percentage), radicle dimensions (length and thickness), and plumule elongation. The study results reveal that CuO nanoparticle applications affect all characters except the germination rate. Generally, germination and seedling traits are positively affected at low nanoparticle doses. However, with increasing doses, the parameters begin to decrease, and when using nanoparticles in high doses, a decrease is observed that can exceed 25% compared to the control group. In addition, it was found that there was a significant decline in both germination characteristics and seedling development as the dose increased after exceeding a certain dose level (400 and 600 mg/L). Significant differences were also found among seed populations. The lowest values for most parameters were recorded in the populations of Karabük/Yenice and Bolu/Mudurnu, whereas the highest ones were observed in the populations of Tekirdağ/Şarköy, Çanakkale/Lapseki, and Kocaeli/Kefken, Türkiye. Keywords: copper oxide; germination; nanoparticle pollution; Prunus avium; seedling

In forestry, the stand structure is typically described by fitting probability density functions to distributions of the empirical tree size dimensions. Selecting an optimal model is essential for accurately characterising structural dynamics, though its performance may vary depending on ecological conditions. In this study, we evaluate the performance of five statistical models used to describe the distribution of diameter at breast height and basal area in pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) forests in the Republic of Moldova, taking into account the influence of soil moisture. Distribution parameters were estimated using the MLE, and model fit was assessed through an integrated approach combining primary criteria (the AIC and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test), secondary indicators (the log likelihood and BIC), and graphical analysis to identify the most suitable distribution by forest type. In dry pedunculate oak-cherry forests and most dry pedunculate oak-blackthorn forests, the Birnbaum-Saunders distribution provided the best fit for diameter and basal area. In contrast, in pedunculate oak-hornbeam forests, the gamma distribution showed superior performance. The Birnbaum-Saunders distribution, rarely applied in forestry, showed a strong fit in stands on dry soils, suggesting its potential for modelling stand structure under extreme ecological conditions. Graphical analysis revealed an overlap between the Birnbaum-Saunders, inverse Gaussian, and log-normal distributions for basal area, indicating that these models reflect similar structural patterns in the pedunculate oak-cherry forests and pedunculate oak-blackthorn forests. The results confirm that soil moisture is a key factor in stand organisation, influencing both tree dimension distributions and structural convergence trends in forest ecosystems. Key words: Quercus robur; probability density functions; model selection; diameter; basal area; stand structure

Feral Pigeons (Columba livia f. urbana), descendants of domesticated pigeons, are highly adapted to urban environments. However, comprehensive genetic studies using the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of them have been scarce. This study evaluated the genetic variability and structure of Feral Pigeons from six urban locations in Spain and Lithuania, comparing them to a population of Feral Pigeons from Taiwan. Additionally, comparisons were made with domestic pigeon breeds and two Columbidae species associated with forest habitats: the Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) and the European Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur). Genetic diversity was assessed using mtDNA D-loop sequences. Among the Feral Pigeons, a low level of genetic diversity was observed (Hd = 0.732; π = 0.00330), with 12 haplotypes forming a star-like network. A single haplotype was shared by nearly half of the individuals, and all haplotypes identified in Taiwan were also present in European populations. No genetic differentiation was found among pigeons within the same country, but significant divergence was observed between the European and Taiwanese populations. Compared to domestic pigeon breeds, Feral Pigeons exhibited slightly higher variability, although both groups were considerably less diverse than the Woodpigeon and European Turtle Dove. The Turtle Dove showed the highest genetic diversity, likely due to its complex phylogeography and migratory patterns. Neutrality tests indicated a recent population expansion in the Woodpigeon, following a bottleneck event. Overall, the results revealed limited genetic variability in Feral Pigeons, contrasting with the greater diversity and broader genetic structure observed in wild Columbidae species analysed. Keywords: Feral pigeon; Woodpigeon; European Turtle Dove; mtDNA; D-loop; genetic variability; population structure

Wood ash from bioenergy production can be recycled as a fertiliser, especially in boreal peatland forests naturally rich in nitrogen (N). We studied the effects of granulated wood ash fertilisation (5,000 kg ha–1) on soil carbon dioxide (CO2) efflux and accumulation of carbon (C) in the stem biomass of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) between a nitrogen-poor (Cladonia-type peatland forest) and a nitrogen-rich site (Vaccinium vitis-idaea-type peatland forest) located in western Finland. The CO2 efflux was measured from the bare peat surface using the manual chamber method eight years after ash fertilisation. In this case study, CO2 loss from the peat without ash application was twice as much at the nitrogen-rich site as at the nitrogen-poor site. Ash fertilisation increased tree stand biomass but also CO2 loss from the peat. At the nitrogen-rich site with higher stem volume (79–108 m3 ha–1), tree stem biomass and soil CO2 efflux increased at the same rate after ash fertilisation. On the nitrogen-poor site, where stand volume was low (7–17 m3 ha–1), soil CO2-C efflux increased more than the accumulation of C in the stem biomass, thus increasing C loss considerably. Therefore, this case study suggests that to optimise the increase of tree growth and at the same time avoid negative climate impacts, wood ash fertilisation should be used in well-stocked nitrogen-rich peatland forests. Key words: forestry; wood ash; soil respiration; Scots pine; carbon dioxide; biomass

The chemical compounds of plant leaves may be used to defend against rust diseases. The effect of methanolic leaf extracts from four resistant and four susceptible alternate hosts of Cronartium pini and C. ribicola, and two pure phenolic chemicals, such as chlorogenic acid and quercitrin, were tested on the germination of C. pini and C. ribicola spores. Aeciospores of these rusts were dusted on water agar amended with the leaf extracts and chemicals in three concentrations and a methanol control, and germination of the aeciospores was counted after 24 h incubation. Germination of the rusts was compared between extracts and concentrations. All plant extracts tended to stimulate the germination of both rusts at 50 and 100 ppm, but the highest concentration, 500 ppm, inhibited the germination of both rusts regardless of the extract. The germination of C. pini spores was inhibited strongly by extracts from Veronica chamaedrys, V. longifolia, Ribes rubrum and Impatiens glandulifera, chlorogenic acid, quercitrin and methanol, and weakly by extracts of Ribes nigrum, Melampyrum pratense, M. sylvaticum and Impatiens balsamina at 500 ppm. The growth of C. ribicola was strongly inhibited by all extracts at 500 ppm. Since the results indicate stronger inhibition by the extracts from resistant host species, more research is required to identify the active compounds for bio-based control of Cronartium rusts. Keywords: aeciospores; alternate hosts; rust resistance; Scots pine blister rust; white-pine blister rust