Abstract
The rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, is the primary vector of the bubonic plague bacterium, Yersinia pestis, and also serves as a vector of bacteria belonging to the genera Rickettsia and Bartonella. As a parasite of the commensal rat, Rattus ssp., it aligns with anthropogenic environments (i.e., sewer systems, human habitation, crop fields, etc.). Rats and fleas are often carried with cargo, and X. cheopis was associated with the spread of plague during the third pandemic from harbor to harbor via sea-trade routes. Fortunately, the environmental conditions required for X. cheopis development appear to have limited its persistence in many regions. Adult X. cheopis live on the host rather than in the nest. Both male and female fleas are hematophagous. They take sporadic blood meals to meet their nutritional requirements and promote egg maturation. Immature fleas live in rat nests and are sensitive to variation in temperature and relative humidity.
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