Word Creation in Speech of Animated Series Character “Masha and the Bear”

"The study of the peculiarities of speech of children with atypical development is necessary for the development of educational programs, children’s socialization and adaptation in society. The aim of this study is to determine the acoustic features of voice and speech of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) as a possible additional diagnostic criterion. The multiplicity of symptomatology, different age of its manifestation, and the presence of a leading symptom complex individually for each child make it difficult to diagnose ASD. To determine the specificity of speech features of ASD, we analyzed the speech of children with developmental disabilities in which speech disorders accompany the disease - Down syndrome (DS), intellectual disabilities (ID), mixed specific developmental disorders (MDD). The features that reflect the main physiological processes occurring in the speech tract during voice and speech production are selected for analysis. The speech of 300 children aged 4-16 years was analyzed. Speech files are selected from the speech database ""AD_Child.Ru"" (Lyakso et al., 2019). Acoustic features of voice and speech, which are specific for different developmental disorders, were determined. The speech of ASD children is characterized by: high pitch values (high voice); pitch variability; high values for the third formant (emotional) and its intensity causing ""atypical"" spectrogram of the speech signal; high values of vowel articulation index (VAI). The speech of children with DS is characterized by the maximal duration of vowels in words; low pitch values (low voice); a wide range of values of the VAI depending on the difficulty of speech material; low values of the third formant; unformed most of consonant phonemes. The characteristics of speech of children with ID are: high values of vowel’s duration in words, the pitch, and the third formant, low values of the VAI; of MDD - low pitch values and high values of the VAI. Based on the identified peculiarities specific to each disease, the set of acoustic features specific to ASD can be considered as a biomarker of autism and used as an additional diagnostic criterion. This will allow a timely diagnose, appoint treatment and develop individual programs for children. Speech characteristics of children with ID, DS, and MDD can be considered to a greater extent in the training and socialization of children and used in the development of training programs taking into account individual peculiarities of children."

The goal of our work is to study the reflection of the emotional state in the characteristics of voice and speech of children with Down syndrome (DS). Participants of the study were 20 children aged 8–12 years: 10 children with DS and 10 typically developing (TD) children. Three types of experimental methods of speech analysis were performed: perceptual (by listeners, n = 350), spectrographic, and linguistic. The results of perceptual experiment showed that the listeners better recognized the emotional state of children with DS than TD children, the state of discomfort in children with DS than the neutral and comfort state. Acoustic features reflecting emotional states are more expressed in speech of children with DS vs. speech of TD children. The state of discomfort in the speech of children with DS is described by a large number of acoustic features that differs significantly from the corresponding characteristics reflecting neutral and comfort states. We presented the first data on the emotional speech of children with DS on the material of the Russian language. These data may be in further used for creating human-computer interfaces for informants with atypical development.

The aim of the study is to reveal the peculiarities of speech and emotional sphere of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). For this purpose, two studies were conducted. The participants of the studies were 445 children aged 5–16 years: 175 children with ASD and 270 typically developing children. The comprehensive methodological approach including methods of spectrographic and phonetic analysis of speech, determining the physiological indicators of a child – hearing thresholds, phonemic hearing, dichotic listening test was used. The assessment of children’s emotional sphere development was conducted by standardized Child Emotional Development Method (CEDM), which includes test tasks for children on the manifestation of emotional states in voice, speech, facial expression and emotion recognition. Based on instrumental analysis, the acoustic features of the voice and speech of children with ASD were determined, which can be considered as biomarkers of the disease. The possibility of children with ASD to manifest and recognize emotions was shown. In children with ASD, the difficulties in manifesting emotional states in voice and facial expressions, recognizing emotions by abstract images and by the speech of other children were revealed. It was shown that the disease factor – the severity of autistic disorders was more important for emotional development of a child than the factor of age. The obtained data on the child speech features and the specificity of recognition and manifestation of emotions in children with ASD in complex contribute to a more accurate identification of disease markers and can be used in the development of automatic applications for the diagnosis of ASD.

The article covers the issue of children's experimentation with the word. The meaning of the concept of "children's occasionalisms" as individual, original, unusual speech innovations that promote the manifestation of the creative potential of the language personality, the development of thinking, imagination and attention. The object of the study are word-formation innovations, innovations formed according to different word-formation models, as unknown or almost unknown to the Ukrainian language system. Occasionalisms of the word-forming type are of great interest for research, because they diversify speech, make utterances non-trivial, their apparent anomaly stimulates attention to the necessary information, activating the attention of switches. The creation of new words by preschoolers is the key to understanding the peculiarities of mental development, a way to adapt in society. Groups of children's occasionalisms on the basis of the processed scientific and methodical literature and own experience are allocated. The study concluded that occasional formations are an integral part of children's speech, as they embody children's inclinations to invent new words other than those of adults, and contribute to the child's comprehensive development by encouraging them to experiment with their own words. Our study showed that children's speech is dominated by occasional nouns, sometimes verbs. The most productive are suffix and prefix word formation. The obtained results prove that children's occasionalisms in general correspond to the tendencies and development of preschoolers and are a characteristic result of research activity.

The paper analyses the children's speech of a cartoon character from the standpoint of ontolinguistics. Children's speech is a difficult phenomenon to study and describe as it combines the features of different language levels. The pastiche of children's speech is studied mainly on the material of literary works. We believe that the speech of the cartoon character has a specific character due to the peculiarities of the discourse (humorous character, age audience, variety of semiotic systems of the cartoon). The purpose of our research is to identify the characteristic features of the children's speech of the cartoon character from the standpoint of ontolinguistics, as well as to describe the linguistic means of creating a comic effect created in the cartoon and functionally intended to attract an adult audience. The famous Russian animated series "Masha and the Bear" was chosen as the research material. One of the aspects that attracted the audience is the speech of the main character Masha. In our opinion, it is the features of her speech that perform the function of expanding the age audience - the cartoon is watched not only by children, but also by adults. The adult Russian speaking audience is attracted by statements containing such linguistic means as precedent statements, allusions, realia, which can be characterized as means of humor and satire. Features of children's speech of different levels in combination with other semiotic systems - images, music, songs - are of greater importance for the children's audience.

The acoustic characteristics of boys and girls' speech resemble adult norms for men and women, respectively, early in life. Moreover, the extent to which a child's speech resembles the adult norms for their biological sex is related to other measures of the extent to which their gender development meets cultural norms [e.g., Perry et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 109 (01); Munson et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 137 (15); and Beaulieu et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 143 (18)]. The acoustic cues to gender in children's speech are distributed throughout the speech signal. Hence, the most common method to determine the attainment of gendered speech is by gathering perceptual ratings of gender typicality. In this study, we examine whether ratings of the gender typicality of children's speech are affected by ratings of another potentially salient attribute that speech acoustics convey: speaker age. We conducted an experiment in which perceived gender and perceived age ratings were collected for the single-word productions of 57 5–13 year old children examined by Beaulieu et al. (18) and brief spoken narratives by the same children. Preliminary results suggest that the effects of talker sex are robust when both actual age and perceived age are controlled statistically.The acoustic characteristics of boys and girls' speech resemble adult norms for men and women, respectively, early in life. Moreover, the extent to which a child's speech resembles the adult norms for their biological sex is related to other measures of the extent to which their gender development meets cultural norms [e.g., Perry et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 109 (01); Munson et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 137 (15); and Beaulieu et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 143 (18)]. The acoustic cues to gender in children's speech are distributed throughout the speech signal. Hence, the most common method to determine the attainment of gendered speech is by gathering perceptual ratings of gender typicality. In this study, we examine whether ratings of the gender typicality of children's speech are affected by ratings of another potentially salient attribute that speech acoustics convey: speaker age. We conducted an experiment in which perceived gender and perceived age ratings were collected for the single-word productions o...

The concept of "General underdevelopment of speech" implies the existence of violations of all components of speech system: a phoneticphonemic hand, lexical content, grammatical structure and connected speech. Psychopedagogical diagnosis is essential to build effective correctional-pedagogical work. The article presents the results of an experimental study of the characteristics of the coherent monological speech at the senior preschool children with General underdevelopment of speech in the conditions of the compensation groups preschool educational institutions as a necessary condition of readiness to learn in school. In the special education system remains relevant and socially important problem of formation of coherent speech in children with developmental disabilities. Connected speech – the highest form of speech and thought activity, which determines the level of speech and mental development of the child. Connectivity is one of the most important integral features of the text that includes vzaimodeistvie such factors as: the content of the text, its meaning, logic of presentation, a special organization of language means; communicative intention; compositional structure. Theoretical-methodological bases of development of coherent speech of preschool children identified in the works of M.M. Horsemeat, A.M. Leushina, L.A. Penievskoy, I.O. Solovieva, E.I. Miheevoj, A.P. Usova, E.A. Flurinol. The content and methods of training of monologic speech in kindergarten actively developed A.M. Borodich, N.F. Vinogradova, L.V. Voroshnin, V.V. Stamp, E.P. Korotkova, N. Arlanova, E.A. Smirnova, N.G. Smolnikova, O. S. Ushakova. In this article the author conducted a study of the characteristics of coherent speech in senior preschool children with General underdevelopment of speech in terms of compensating group Doo.

You have accessThe ASHA LeaderFeature1 Mar 2005Aural Habilitation Update: The Role of Speech Production Skills of Infants and Children With Hearing Loss Sheila R. Pratt Sheila R. Pratt Google Scholar More articles by this author https://doi.org/10.1044/leader.FTR2.10042005.8 SectionsAbout ToolsAdd to favorites ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In It is well known that the development of speech is extremely limited without adequate auditory input and feedback. An obvious example is that hearing loss in infancy and early childhood usually affects all as pects of speech production unless there is early and consistent use of sensory aids as well as substantive sensorimotor and linguistic training. The speech development of infants and children with hearing loss hinges on their abilities to use audition not only to learn the sounds of their language, but also to use their articulators to produce those sounds and make use of auditory feedback to refine their speech over time. As such, the speech of children with prelingual hearing loss is particularly susceptible to delay and disorder, es pecially if the severity of the hearing loss is substantial and intervention is delayed or inadequate. Speech Development During the first six months of life (and possibly in utero) auditory perceptual learning is vital for acquiring oral language and speech, although the maturation timeline for the speech production in normal-hearing children is relatively lengthy. This protracted timeline may account for the long-term training and treatment needs of many children with hearing loss, even those identified and fitted early with sensory aids (Yoshinaga-Itano & Sedey, 2000). Young children with normal hearing typically begin babbling around 5–6 months of age and start verbal expression around 12 months of age. However, their speech production skills continue to be refined through the school-age years and well beyond when their basic phonological inventories have been established. For example, vowel space, voice-onset times, and vocal control adjust throughout early childhood (Assmann & Katz, 2000; Koenig, 2001; Lee, Pontamianos, & Naray anan, 1999). Furthermore, substantial acoustic variability is a hallmark of children’s speech production until late childhood. Although the research is somewhat mixed on the development of coarticulation, children appear to be less able than adults to coarticulate their speech gestures in a consistent manner, and as a consequence, their speech is less intelligible than that of adults (Katz, Kripke, & Tallal, 1991; Nittrouer, 1993). The refinement of auditory processing of speech has a similar developmental timeline. Child ren may apply different rules or weights to speech cues than adults, and these weights change throughout childhood (Nittrouer, 2003; Nit trouer, Crowther, & Miller, 1998). Their auditory processing of speech also appears to be more susceptible to acoustic and linguistic perturbations than is observed with adults. Children are more adversely affected than adults by background noise, reverberation, talker variability, re ductions in signal bandwidth, and the number of signal channels (Eisenberg et al., 2000; Ryalls & Pisoni, 1997; Kortekaas & Stelmachowicz, 2000). The Role of Audition in Speech Development and Production For mature speakers, audition acts as an error detector and a means of monitoring speaking conditions. It is considered to be slower than other forms of sensory information (i.e., proprioception) generated during speech, and therefore is likely limited to a feedback role (Perkell et al., 1997). Speakers use audition to determine if their articulators have produced sounds that are acoustically off-target. Audition also provides information for corrective adjustments, and as a consequence, is a contributor to the maintenance of speech integrity. Studies of frequency and spectrally shifted speech feedback have shown that adults rapidly adjust to minor acoustic perturbations with compensatory and/or matching strategies (Bauer & Larson, 2003; Houde & Jordan, 2002; Jones & Munhall, 2002, 2003). They appear to adjust their articulators so that their speech productions match their internal representations. In addition to acting as an error detector, hearing is used by mature speakers to determine how they should adjust their speech in various acoustic, linguistic, and social environments. For example, adults know when to speak slower, louder, softer, or more precisely in order to accommodate their listener or the environmental conditions (Perkell et al., 1997). In contrast, many young children are unable to adjust the clarity of their speech, even when explicitly directed to do so (Ide-Helvie et al., 2004). Audition also allows the development of articulatory organization by providing information about how to position, move, and coordinate the articulators for speech, movements that can differ from those associated with vegetative functions of the mechanisms (Moore & Ruark, 1996). For ex ample, infants use audition to learn how to shift from a vegetative breathing pattern to a pattern that can support speech. They learn how to position and move their tongues and to judge the acoustic consequences of those gestures. Coord ination of the larynx with the vocal tract and upper airway articulators is refined over years but requires an intact auditory system (Koenig, 2001; Tye-Murray, 1992). The lip and jaw movements associated with speech in infants and young children are highly variable but distinct from sucking, chewing, and smiling (Green et al., 2000; Green, Moore, & Reilly, 2002; Moore & Ruark, 1996). The implication is that although the same peripheral mechanisms are used across oral and respiratory functions, the differing goals require substantially distinct coordination and feedback efforts. The coordination needed to chew and swallow efficiently develops over early childhood but is largely independent of hearing, whereas the coordination required to move between vowel and consonant gestures, particularly in a coordinated and coarticulated manner, is strongly influenced by hearing (Baum & Waldstein, 1991; Guenther, 1995; Tye-Murray, 1992; Waldstein & Baum, 1991). Audition has a primary sensorimotor role in the development of speech, but it also is fundamental to infants and young children learning the sounds of their language. Furthermore, it helps them learn how specific speech events relate to their phonology, so that with development, young children become more able to use their hearing to inform them about the sequencing of speech gestures and the correctness of subsequent productions. Over time children learn to use audition to monitor ongoing speech, detect errors, and make corrective adjustments. Hearing Loss and Speech Production Hearing loss is common in the general population but its effects on speech production are most pronounced with individuals whose hearing loss is congenital or acquired in early childhood. Most adults who acquire their hearing losses later in life suffer little or no deterioration in intelligibility, likely because their residual hearing provides sufficient feedback since their mature speech production systems rely more on orosensory than auditory information to maintain proper control (Guenther, 1995; Goehl & Kaufman, 1984; Perkell et al., 1997). The speech differences that they do exhibit are subtle and usually imperceptible, even in cases of complete or nearly complete adventitious hearing loss. Nonetheless, some adventitiously deafened adults exhibit reduced speaking rate, and compromised articulatory and phonatory precision (Kishon-Rabin et al., 1999; Lane & Webster, 1991; Lane et al., 1995; Leder et al., 1987; Waldstein, 1990; Perkell et al., 1992). These speech differences are similar in nature, but not in severity, to those observed with prelingually deafened speakers. Most infants and young children with hearing loss demonstrate disordered phonation and articulation, as well as delays in the acquisition of sound categories. The entire speech production system can be affected, from respiratory support to the coarticulation of ongoing speech (Pratt & Tye-Murray, 1997). This is especially true if the hearing loss is identified late or after a period of protracted hearing loss. Furthermore, the overlap and interaction of disordered sound production and linguistic delay contribute to poor speech integrity and restricted speech development. Babbling generally does not appear before 12 months of age (Oller & Eilers, 1988; Oller et al., 1985) and canonical babbling has been observed as late as 31 months in this population (Lynch, Oller, & Steffens, 1989). Infants also produce fewer instances of canonical babble and include a more limited range of consonants in their babble (Stoel-Gammon, 1988; Stoel-Gammon & Otomo, 1986; Wallace, Menn, & Yoshinaga-Itano, 2000). However, later speech intelligibility is better predicted by the consonant inventory used in emerging spoken language during the second year of life than during babble (Obenchain, Menn, & Yoshinaga-Itano, 2000). The phonetic repertoires of infants with severe-to-profound hearing loss often are restricted when compared to their normal-hearing peers, although there is abundant individual variability (Lach, Ling, Ling & Ship, 1970; Stoel-Gammon & Otomo, 1986; Wallace et al., 2000; Yoshinaga-Itano & Sedey, 2000). The early speech inventories of infants with severe-to-profound hearing loss predominately consist of motorically easy sounds such as vowels and bilabial consonants. The sounds of their inventories also contain more low frequency information, which is more audible. For example, the babbling of infants with hearing loss often has a high concentration of nasals and glides, which include low-frequency continuant cues (Stoel-Gammon & Otomo, 1986). Without early intervention and appropriate fitting of sensory aids the speech-sound inventories of many children with hearing loss usually do not attain full maturity. Yoshinaga-Itano and Sedey (2000) found that children with moderate-to-severe hearing losses did not reach an age-appropriate complement of vowel and consonant sounds until about 4 and 5 years respectively, and many children with profound hearing loss had restricted inventories even at 5 years of age. Children with profound hearing loss often reach an early plateau in their speech skill development. For instance, the speech characteristics of many children with severe-to-profound hearing loss demonstrate little improvement in sound inventory and intelligibility after 8 years of age, even with the initiation of extensive training (Hudgins & Number, 1942, McGarr, 1987; Smith, 1975). Such results imply that, like auditory and language interventions, speech production therapy should be an important component of early intervention, and that the common practice of delaying speech training in children with hearing loss until they have functional language is developmentally untenable if the goal is for them to be oral communicators. In addition to the relationship between age-of-onset and speech impairment severity, there also is a moderately positive relationship between the severity of hearing loss and the extent of the associated speech difficulties (Boothroyd, 1969; Levitt, 1987; Smith, 1975). For example, children with mild-to-moderate hearing loss, particularly if well aided, tend to exhibit speech differences that are mild (Elfenbein, Hardin-Jones, & Davis, 1994; Oller & Kelly, 1974; West & Weber, 1973). Elfenbein and colleagues found that children with mild-to-moderate hearing loss exhibit good intelligibility but had higher than normal rates of affricate and fricative substitutions. Mild hoarseness and resonance problems also are present in 20% to 30% of this group of children. Moreover, they tend to have increased rates of voicing irregularities, difficulties with /r/ production, and omissions of back and word-final consonants. Early studies of children with profound prelingual hearing loss showed that most rarely acquired speech skills sufficient to interact easily using spoken language. On average, less than 20% of their words were intelligible to listeners who were not familiar with their speech (Hidgins & Numbers 1942; Markides, 1970; Smith, 1975). Smith (1975) evaluated 40 children with varying levels of hearing loss and, on average, only 18.7% (0% to 76%) of their words could be identified by inexperienced listeners. As expected, overall intelligibility was inversely related to the frequency of segmental and suprasegmental errors. However, with early identification of hearing loss and early intervention (i.e., fitting of sensory devices, behavioral training, and parent counseling), the numbers of children with severe-to-profound hearing loss and intelligible speech has increased (Uchanski & Geers, 2003). Many more children are developing sufficient speech perception to support development of speech production and oral language, but these advances may have added to the overall heterogeneity of the population (Higgins et al., 2003). Other factors contribute to the diversity of speech production skills observed with these children. For instance, cognitive skill (particularly nonverbal intelligence) has been found to be an important predictor of functional speech and oral language in children with hearing loss (Geers et al., 2002; Tobey et al., 2003). Auditory experience in infancy and early childhood, even of limited duration, positively influences the speech production skills of children who have severe-to-profound hearing loss (Geers, 2004). The use of sensory aids has a substantial impact on speech outcomes, but somewhat surprisingly, the age at which infants and young children are fitted with cochlear implants has not surfaced in studies of speech production as a significant predictor of later speech intelligibility (Geers et al., 2002; Tobey et al., 2003). Early implantation (less than 2 years) is, however, related to more normal oral communication development as a whole (both speech and oral language) (Geers, 2004). It may be that the age of implantation is not easily separated from other influences of intervention, like the orientation of the habilitation program and parent involvement, which relate strongly to children being auditory perceptual learners and users of auditory feedback. Another consideration is that many early-implanted children may be implanted too late to observe a clear impact on speech production. The critical ages at which hearing aids should be fitted has not been investigated, but like cochlear implants, it is assumed that earlier is better. The oromotor integrity and language skills are additional factors that often are neglected in studies of speech development in children with hearing loss. A substantial number of infants and children with hearing loss present with secondary handicapping conditions, such as neurological disorders. When these neurological disorders include the speech mechanism, the development of functional speech is difficult even if audition is optimized. As such, is it not unusual for a child with hearing loss to have a coexisting dysarthria along with the speech impairment secondary to the hearing loss. A subset of children with hearing loss also may have an apraxia of speech, but separating the impact of hearing loss from an apraxia of speech is difficult because the associated speech characteristics overlap (McNeil, Robin & Schmidt, 1997). Language disorders also are commonly observed in children with hearing loss, and are frequently evidenced in phonological disorder and lexical delay. As a result, extricating the sensorimotor impact of hearing loss on speech production from the influences of language disorder in individual children is not always straightforward (Peng et al., 2004). Habilitation: Sensory Aids and Treatment Most speech training approaches are dependent on optimizing the use of residual hearing although some approaches use other modalities (Pratt, Heintzelman, & Deming, 1993; Pratt & Tye-Murray, 1997). Correspondingly, it is generally believed that speech is learned most easily if infants and children learn and monitor their speech through their auditory systems. Therefore, the proper and early fitting, and consistent use of sensory aids, along with auditory and language training are important components of speech production training. In support of this auditory-based approach is the relationship between the severity of prelingual hearing loss and the extent of speech delay/disorder found in children (Boothroyd, 1969; Levitt, 1987; Smith, 1975), as well as any history of previous hearing (Geers, 2004). The relationship between audiometric configuration and speech intelligibility also argues for the importance of audition if the goal for a child is oral communication (Levitt, 1987; Osberger, Maso, & Sam, 1993). There is a growing literature supporting the positive impact of cochlear implants on speech development, as well as the role that auditory-oral-based training programs play in communication outcomes of children fitted with cochlear implants (Geers et al., 2002; Tobey et al., 2003). There is, however, limited efficacy data for children with less severe hearing loss who are typically fitted with hearing aids. The lack of research in this area is glaring because wearable electroacoustic hearing aids have been available for more than 50 years (Lybarger, 1988) and are a fundamental component of treatment approaches for most children with hearing loss. Furthermore, more infants and children are fitted with hearing aids than cochlear implants. Preliminary data reported by Stemachowicz and her colleagues (2004) on three infants fitted early with hearing aids suggested delays in sound category acquisition consistent with patterns previously reported in the literature. Sound inventories were impoverished, consonants were more affected than vowels, and sound containing high-frequency cues were particularly limited. Additional data by Pittman and colleagues (2003) observed that the amplitude of high-frequency speech cues directed to and produced by children wearing hearing aids may not be sufficient, although they did not connect their results directly to speech production outcomes. Pratt, Grayhack, Palmer, and Sabo (2003) found that differences in hearing aid configuration could alter vowel spacing of children even though the children in their study had intelligible speech, and the speech tokens measured were limited to acceptable productions. Their data indicated that hearing aids could alter the speech of children, but provided little information about the impact that hearing aids may have on speech development. Given the paucity of data-as well as the expansion of universal infant hearing screening programs-it is critical that more research be done in this area. 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The neologization with the popularity of the Internet occurs actively in the contemporary Russian language. Not only mass media but also common people, Internet users contribute significantly. New words from the media discourse get into word creating rates of Internet project “Word of the Year”. On the one hand, ranked lists are the indicators of social changes, on the other hand, they reflect linguocreative potential of people, who participate in lists formation. Creative speech activity relates to language game. One of the main rules of such a game is the understanding of conditions of a certain speech (game) code both by a creator of a word and by an interlocutor. Conducted analysis shows that authors mostly use the model of compressive word creation and it proves high creative potential, freedom of speech behavior and linguistic sense of native speakers, who strive to the self-expression with word creation. New formations created by methods of paronymic attraction and blend words save semantic links with original words. So they have semantic of motivating words in their meaning and have advantage over descriptive constructions. Thus, methods of word creation, which allow describing social and political events of a country or a personal life with a new bright word with evaluative element in it, are popular in the contemporary word creative activity.

Nikolai Leskov is known for his love of language game, puns, rarely used words and word creation — he usually employs all these tactics for constructing a narrator’s image. One of his most poorly studied works is of particular interest in this regard. Notes of the Unknown (1884) is a collection of short anecdotes, mainly from the life of the clergy. In this particular series, Leskov, while imitating someone else’s speech, also bares the narrator’s hypocrisy and turns his clerical rhetoric into an object of parody, the purpose of which is to indicate the need for the transition from state Orthodoxy to “spiritual Christianity” and for the revitalization of a dead word.

This study examines the relationship between the functional characteristics of children's spontaneous speech and maternal-report measures of referential vocabulary at 50 and 100 words in 7 first-born middle-class children. Although evidence is found for functional differences between children which show continuity between 50 and 100 words, no relationships are found between these functional differences and corresponding measures of referential vocabulary. This suggests that the kind of differences identified in Nelson's original (1973) study may cut across rather than reflect differences in the pragmatics of children's speech, and also raises doubts about the widespread tendency to interpret variation in vocabulary composition in terms of underlying differences in language use.

The article attempts to provide an answer to the questions concerning the aspects of internationalization of the Polish lexical stock, in the 21th century. In the first part, the author presents a list of new loanwords, for example, pendrive, followers, vlog, burger, webinarium, ciabatta, tacos. The new words are mostly borrowed from the English language. In the second part of the article, the author presents neologisms formation which perform various function (for example expressive, nominative). In this section the productivity of foreign prefixes and ranks with the formation of borrowed morphemes are discussed, too. The main objective of the paper is to show how old loanwords (for example alkoholik, parking, skleroza, automat, akwarium) have an impact on the creation of hybrids. The author describes word-formation like motylarium, żółwiarium, pająkarium, reklamoza, szyldoza, grantoza, serialoholik, fejsoholik, kawomat, ciastkomat, parawaning, grobing and she points to the patterns by which new units were created. Other authors perceive these phenomena as inextricably bound with the tendency to internationalization and with the processes of “linguistic globalization”. The main thesis of the article is that borrowed suffixes have different functions, the most important of which are creativity and language game, evaluation, especially negative one. The analysed phenomena prove that there is no clear border between creation of words and their borrowing, between the nominative function and the language game.

This study aims to develop a learning medium in the form of a game used for practice questions through PUME in the Solid Geometry topic to optimize creative thinking abilities. The method used in this study is Research and Development (R&D) with the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation). The participants for evaluating the feasibility of PUME included 4 media experts and 3 content experts consisting of lecturers and teachers, while the participants for assessing effectiveness were eighth-grade junior high school students from Cianjur district. The data collection techniques used in this study were a test of students' creative mathematical thinking abilities and expert judgment (validation by media experts, content experts, and student responses). The data analysis techniques used in this study involved qualitative data analysis (data reduction, data presentation, conclusion drawing) and quantitative data analysis in the form of percentage validation by media experts, content experts, and student responses using random sampling. The results of the study on the development of PUME as a learning medium for the Solid Geometry topic in the form of an educational game show that it can optimize students' creative mathematical thinking abilities. The feasibility level of PUME was rated as “very feasible,” and the effectiveness of PUME was classified as “effective” for implementation in mathematics learning for the Solid Geometry topic in junior high schools. As for students' creative mathematical thinking abilities, 45% of the students were nearly able to optimize their abilities.

This study covers the third year of life as part of a longitudinal investigation of the establishment of speech in Russian children performed on the basis of listener, phonetic, and instrumented acoustical analysis. The present report addresses the establishment of those additional acoustic and phonetic characteristics in children's speech which allow speech recognition. This is the first instrumented analysis in Russian children with statistical assessment of the dynamics of vowel formants in children's words, of the establishment of characteristics (stress, lack of stress), opposition (palatalization, lack of palatalization of consonants), and voice onset time for plosive consonants. The results showed that recognition of children's words by listeners with a high probability of success resulted from the formation of a system of acoustically stable properties in the children's speech which together provide informational adequacy for verbal communication.

The article presents the results of the empirical study of children’s word creation in the linguocultural aspect. Based on the analysis of diary records of the large family Matonins-Morozovs (O. Solovki, 1981–2001), the word formation methods and the features of the thinking of children at different ages are systematised, the conclusions about the patterns of the reflecting of vision of world in the speech are drawed. Lexical material has obtained as result of the observations on the speech development of the half-brothers and sisters: Valya (1981), Katya (1983), Masha (1982), Vitalik (1984), Alexandra (1986) and Nicholay (1993). The utterances of the friends with whom the brothers and sisters Matonins-Morozovs communicated are also used. The indivisibility of children’s consciousness and the inartificial ways of child self-expression makes us wonder on the complex connection of thoughts and language in the process of the personality development and formation. As a result of the study, the following speech features of childrenfrom two to five years are noted. The animistic and totemic worldview manifestations, characteristic of the tribal communities culture, are characterized to children’s speech.In particular, they are expressed in the symbolic perception of reality, in the animating of toys and everyday life objects.At this age children use such forms of the word creation as compounding, saving of linguistic resources, using of well-known lexical forms to create neologisms based on onomatopoeia or familiar function of a thing by analogy. The blending can be calledas a special phenomenon in children’s speech. It manifests itself at all language levels. Preschoolers at the age of five or six often formulate thoughts in the short, fantastic stories, parables or fairy tales form. This is the most comfortable form of their communication. It has the language game character.Jargon expressions, imitation of the adults, misuse of terminology and unfamiliar words appear and dominate in the youngsters’s speech.