Abstract
Fludioxonil and iprodione are effective fungicides widely used for crop protection and are essential for controlling plant pathogenic fungi. The emergence of fungicide-resistant strains of targeted pathogens is regularly monitored, and several cases have been reported. Non-targeted fungi may also be exposed to the fungicide residues in agricultural fields. However, there are no comprehensive reports on fungicide-resistant strains of non-targeted fungi. Here, we surveyed 99 strains, representing 12 Penicillium species, that were isolated from a variety of environments, including foods, dead bodies, and clinical samples. Among the Penicillium strains, including non-pathogenic P. chrysogenum and P. camembertii, as well as postharvest pathogens P. expansum and P. digitatum, 14 and 20 showed resistance to fludioxonil and iprodione, respectively, and 6 showed multi-drug resistance to the fungicides. Sequence analyses revealed that some strains of P. chrysogenum and Penicillium oxalicum had mutations in NikA, a group III histidine kinase of the high-osmolarity glycerol pathway, which is the mode of action for fludioxonil and iprodione. The single nucleotide polymorphisms of G693D and T1318P in P. chrysogenum and T960S in P. oxalicum were only present in the fludioxonil- or iprodione-resistant strains. These strains also exhibited resistance to pyrrolnitrin, which is the lead compound in fludioxonil and is naturally produced by some Pseudomonas species. This study demonstrated that non-targeted Penicillium strains distributed throughout the environment possess fungicide resistance.
Highlights
Fludioxonil is a member of the phenylpyrrole class of fungicides that acts on a broad spectrum of plant pathogenic fungi [1]
To understand the distribution of fludioxonil and iprodione resistance in non-targeted fungal species, we prepared a set of 99 Penicillium strains representing 12 species
No strains resistant to either of the fungicides were present in P. expansum, P. italicum, or P. steckii
Summary
Fludioxonil is a member of the phenylpyrrole class of fungicides that acts on a broad spectrum of plant pathogenic fungi [1]. It is a derivative of pyrrolnitrin, a secondary metabolite produced by certain bacteria, including Pseudomonas species [2] ここをクリックまたはタップ してテキストを入力してください。. Fludioxonil is widely used for crop, as well as post-harvest, protection of pom fruits from fungal pathogens. Treatment with fludioxonil leads to an abnormal hyphal morphology, including swelling and balloon-shapes, as well as the hyperaccumulation of glycerol, and these changes have been observed in several fungal species [4, 5]. High-doses of fludioxonil produce fungicidal effects on a wide range of fungi. Fludioxonil is the first choice for controlling plant pathogenic fungi in fields and for preserving harvested crops
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