Abstract
This research presents an in-depth study of the skeletal remains collected from the archaeological site of Allumiere (15th-16th centuries CE; Rome, Italy). A multidisciplinary approach was used, combining skeletal biology, molecular anthropology and archaeobotany with the aim of reconstructing the osteobiography of the alum miners buried at the site. Since 1460, the area of the Tolfa Mountains was significant for the exploitation of alum which was used for a wide range of purposes in the Middle Ages, ranging from woven production to medical practice. A total of 70 individuals (63 adults and 7 juveniles) were studied. The sex ratio of the community indicated a higher prevalence of males with respect to females. Morphological examination indicated occupational musculoskeletal stress markers, which might reflect the specific phase of alum production that each individual was occupied in. Dietary reconstruction was primarily performed through carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis with integration of the results obtained by microscopic, genetic and GC-MS investigations on dental calculus. The diet was omnivorous, indicating a reliance on C3-terrestrial protein and evidence for limited C4 consumption by some individuals. Herbivores, such as sheep and cattle, appear to have contributed to the diet more than pigs and chickens. Consumption of Fagaceae and Poaceae species was predominant; moreover, indicators of Brassicaceae and milk and its derivatives were abundantly recurrent in the population, followed by plant oils and theophylline. Furthermore, the detection of pharmacological alkaloids indicated the knowledge and application of medicinal plants by the community. The novel use of multiple techniques based on cutting-edge technologies has provided a unique window on the lifestyles of individuals from one of the first Italian settlements of alum workers.
Highlights
The exploitation of alum in Italy started in 1460, when Giovanni di Castro, a commissioner of the Pontifical State, identified the presence of alunite, a mineral from which alum could be extracted, in the territory of the Tolfa Mountains (Rome, Italy) [1,2,3]
It is worth pointing out the underrepresentation of sub-adults with respect to adults and the high prevalence of males with respect to females among the adults
The imbalance between sexes is indicated by the elevated sex ratio (M:F = 8.0) which is significantly different from the range of expected proportions (χ2, p
Summary
The exploitation of alum in Italy started in 1460, when Giovanni di Castro, a commissioner of the Pontifical State, identified the presence of alunite, a mineral from which alum could be extracted, in the territory of the Tolfa Mountains (Rome, Italy) [1,2,3]. Alum is a salt made up of ammonium sulfate and potassium associated with twenty-four molecules of crystallization water, whose applications ranged from textile production to medicine. The discovery of alunite on the Tolfa Mountains was of vital importance for the papal coffers and influenced the rise of the Western European textile industry. This source became important after the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 meaning that alunite deposits located in the Eastern Mediterranean area became difficult to access [2]. In 1499, the banker Agostino Chigi was responsible for the organization of the mining enterprise and settlement of the area and the birth of the village that would later become Allumiere, is likely down to his actions [2]
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