Abstract
Concerning defensive signaling by white marking, two evolutionary issues should be specifically mentioned: first, the significance of white marking in contrast to colorful marking and second, the probable convergence of this character as expressed by geography and taxonomy. When a certain herbivore is color-blind to a certain sector of the spectrum or is color-blind altogether; or when illumination is not strong or it has an altered color temperature for some meteorological, ecological, or daytime related reason, then white marking increases the possibility that a signal will still be visible. As will be discussed below in several chapters, defensive white marking seems to be common in many plant species originating in various taxa, continents, ecologies, life forms and in many plant organs (see Lev-Yadun 2001, 2003a, 2014a, b, c, d).
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