When Morality Is Hard to Like

Abstract

Einstein’s letter encapsulates key aspects of moral judgment: moral sentiment (his concern about the outcome of World War II); recognition of a moral dilemma (whether to disclose scientific evidence that could lead to a fearsomely lethal new weapon) and a utilitarian calculus (Would more lives be spared if America rather than Germany eventually built such a weapon?). It must have been a terrible struggle deciding whether to write that letter. Half a century later cognitive neuroscience is gaining the ability to explain the brain mechanisms that underlie such moral judgments and ethical deliberations. Empirical studies have examined issues such as how a sense of morality arises in a child’s developing brain, how various kinds of brain damage affect moral judgment, which brain areas seem to be at play when we feel moral disgust, and how we think our way through confusing moral dilemmas. The results have been compelling; carry out an Internet search for “brain and morality,” and you will get a taste of this rich and growing literature. A crucial issue that remains poorly understood, however, is the