Abstract
The nature of life has been much discussed by philosophers as well as scientists (see, e.g., Schrodinger 1944; Bertalanffy 1952, 1975; Portmann 1960, 1974; Waddington 1961, 1968–72; Grene 1965,1974; Jonas 1966; Blandino 1969; Jacob 1970; Black 1972; Jeuken 1975; Canguilhem 1975; Elsasser 1975, 1981; Grene and Mendelsohn 1976; Heidcamp 1978; Atlan 1979; Bateson 1979; Buckley and Peat 1979; Varela 1979; Morin 1980; Crick 1981; Mercer 1981). Quite often it has been implied that a characterization or definition of life must consist of a list of properties (or at least a single property) that are exhibited by life, but are absent in nonliving nature. Such an approach is based on the belief in a dualism between life and inanimate nature. During the last decades, systems thinking has focused attention on more inclusive systems, such as ecosystems, that comprise living organisms as well as so-called nonliving matter. A characterization of an ecosystem need not imply an absolute dualism between life and inanimate nature, but may instead emphasize the characteristics of the whole ecosystem. From this vantage point, life and reality may be seen in a more global perspective.
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