Abstract
Subject EU responses to US cyber policy. Significance Since the US Department of Defense (DoD) detailed its new cyber strategy in 2015, several European countries have also announced strategies to build dedicated military offensive cyber capabilities. These moves indicate that cyber operations are becoming normal in modern conflict. This has implications beyond military spending, putting pressure on risk managers in potential target sectors while fuelling demand for offensive skillsets. Impacts As more states gain offensive capabilities, the range of operations will multiply, potentially fuelling more conflicts. The market for offensive cyber technologies will grow. US offensive spending may be seen in Moscow as directed against Russia.
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