Abstract
Limited water availability coupled with the lack of hygienic and reliable water sources plague rural areas throughout the developing world. Tanzaniahas abundant fresh water sources, yet delivery, disinfection, and conservation outside of large towns is lacking or minimal at best. Here we examine drinking water sources in two climatologically distinct regions in Tanzania. We consider their chemical and microbiological characteristics specifically with respect to the potential for ultraviolet (UV) disinfection treatment. Interviews with local villagers provided information on collection means, frequency, storage, and incidences of water related illnesses. Total suspended solids, iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) concentrations, total bacterial abundances, presence of fecal coliforms, and evidence of Escherichia coli contamination were measured in 31 water sources. Total suspended solids exceeded 15 mg/L, the limit for effective UV treatment, in more than half the sources. Principal component analysis indicated a positive correlation of bacterial abundances with levels of Fe. Water with elevated levels of Mn was associated with greater incidences of diseases. Levels of both Fe and Mn appeared to be more dependent on water source than on climatic differences with the chemical composition of the source rock and redox conditions of the water source at time of collection likely contributing to measured concentrations. E. coli was detected more frequently in water sources in the drier Kondoa district than in the wetter Arusha region. Water quality and socio-economic conditions within villages were linked to incidences of water-borne diseases. The maximum risk of exposure to diarrhea-causing pathogens, for example was strongly related to household income level. Nonetheless, incidences of diarrhea were reduced by more than 40% when the average monthly household expenses increased from US $10 to $20. Finally, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study known to derive an empirical relationship between water-related diseases and poverty.
Highlights
Water is increasingly becoming the world’s most precious commodity for the more than 6.8 billion people on this planet; with the situation only to become more dire for the projected 8.1 billion people by 2030 [1,2]
In spite of the considerable natural variability in water sources, only three of the eleven water samples from the Arusha region were contaminated with Escherichia coli bacteria, a strong indicator of recent sewage contamination while 18 of the 20 from the Kondoa district showed contamination
Total suspended solids were elevated in more than half the water sources in both regions exceeding by a factor of 5, the allowable UV treatment limit of 15 mg/L in four locations (Figure 3)
Summary
Water is increasingly becoming the world’s most precious commodity for the more than 6.8 billion people on this planet; with the situation only to become more dire for the projected 8.1 billion people by 2030 [1,2]. Over 1.2 billion people currently lack access to clean water and 2.6 billion do not have proper sanitation; with these issues apparent in developing countries [3]. As much as 30% of the world’s population will not have access to adequate supplies of fresh water by 2015 [4]. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) estimates that 88% of global disease afflictions are due to unsafe water supplies, and lack of sanitation and personal hygiene. More than 2 million children die every year from inadequate clean water and sanitation related health problems [5]
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