Abstract
Human embryonic stem cells (hESC), similar to cancer cells, display a Warburg phenotype that favors cell proliferation. Immature mitochondria in hESC show few cristae and disorganized ultrastructure. Voltage dependent anion channels (VDAC 1/2/3) in the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), regulate the flux of respiratory substrates, glycolytic ATP, ADP and Pi entering mitochondria, and mitochondrial ATP release to the cytosol. The adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT 1/2/3), located in the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), exchanges ADP for ATP.
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