Abstract
Muricidae molluscs are the source of a valuable purple dye that was traded as a luxury item in the Mediterranean region and by the late Byzantine was reserved for royalty and priests. Less well known is the use of muricid opercula in sacred incense and traditional medicines, although they are still used as rare ingredients today. This study provides the first chemical assessment of opercula from Muricidae, based on several traditional preparation procedures. Chemical analysis of opercula smoke revealed aromatic phenols, which act as fragrance stabilisers and produce a “medicinal” odour. Analysis of lipid extracts revealed pharmaceutically active compounds, including brominated indoles, choline esters and adenosine, consistent with their traditional medical applications. Depending on the preparation procedures, toxic pyridine was also detected. ICP-MS analysis of muricid opercula shows the presence of essential macro and microelements, as well as metals, some of which exceed the recommended safe levels for human use. Nevertheless, these findings support the Muricidae as an historically important marine resource, providing Biblical dyes, medicines and perfume. The opercula contains biologically active compounds and produces smoke containing volatile scent compounds, consistent with their identification as the most likely source of onycha, a controversial ingredient in sacred incense.
Highlights
Over the last century, there has been much controversy over the identity of onycha, one of the four major ingredients of sacred incense (Exodus 30:34)[1]
Bdellium from Commiphora sp. has been suggested[3] because it produces a gum that was used in antiquity in incense and produces a sweet spicy smell, bdellium was commonly identified as a adulterant of myrrh in the spice trade[3,9]. These alternative sources cannot be ruled out, but there is no scientific evidence to support their use in holy incense and none seem to fit the translation of onycha as well as the opercula of neogastropods, which is made of a strong protein similar to the keratin of fingernails
When trapped in 25% ethanol after burning in a purpose built apparatus (Fig. 1E), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed a predominance of aromatic compounds in the operculum smoke (Fig. 2A, Supplementary Fig. S1)
Summary
There has been much controversy over the identity of onycha, one of the four major ingredients of sacred incense (Exodus 30:34)[1]. Shellfish purple was used in the textiles of ordinary Roman soldiers and has been found in other Mediterranean archaeological remains, including wall paintings and pottery[6,7] With this in mind; the perceived “uncleanliness” of molluscs seems to have had little influence on the cultural eagerness to exploit Muricidae products, earning them a conceivable place as a component of sacred incense. Has been suggested[3] because it produces a gum that was used in antiquity in incense and produces a sweet spicy smell, bdellium was commonly identified as a adulterant of myrrh in the spice trade[3,9] These alternative sources cannot be ruled out, but there is no scientific evidence to support their use in holy incense and none seem to fit the translation of onycha as well as the opercula of neogastropods, which is made of a strong protein similar to the keratin of fingernails. The opercula of the Muricidae species Chicoreus ramosus are exported from India to European countries for use in cosmetics, perfumes and medicines[23]
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