Vitamin D Intake in a Population-Based Sample of Young Polish Women, Its Major Sources and the Possibility of Meeting the Recommendations.

Zofia Utri,Dominika Głąbska

doi:10.3390/foods9101482

Abstract

The recommendations of vitamin D intake are commonly not met, which results from the fact that fish, being its major sources, are commonly rarely consumed. Consequently, a reliable estimation of its habitual intake is also difficult, as its daily intake is highly variable. The aim of the study was to analyze vitamin D intake from food, its major sources and the possibility to meet its recommendations in a population-based sample of young Polish women. The study was conducted in a sample of Polish women aged 15–30 years, recruited in cooperation with local students’ and youth organizations from all regions of Poland (convenience sampling with the snowball effect), while the stratified sampling procedure was applied with a random quota sampling for voivodeships (an administrative subdivision), to obtain an adequate distribution regarding the general population of young Polish women (n = 1,032). The vitamin D intake was assessed while using the validated Vitamin D Estimation Only—Food Frequency Questionnaire (VIDEO-FFQ) and was compared with the recommended 10 µg. The median vitamin D intake in the study group was 3.09 µg (0.00–24.52 µg) and in 95% of participants was lower than recommended, while the highest vitamin D intake was observed for the following sources: eggs (0.50 µg), meat and meat products (0.49 µg), herring, sardine and tuna products (0.41 µg) and dairy products (0.40 µg). The correlation between total vitamin D intake and its intake from its sources was strongest for eggs (p < 0.0001; R = 0.5989) and for herring, sardine and tuna products (p < 0.0001; R = 0.5314), while the correlation between total vitamin D intake and the number of servings was strongest for herring, sardine and tuna products (p < 0.0001; R = 0.5314). At the same time, while compared with other fish species, consuming herring was the strongest predictor of meeting the recommended vitamin D level of 10 µg (p = 0.0292; odds ratio (OR) = 1.94; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.07–3.52), but also of 5 µg (p < 0.0001; OR = 2.54; 95% CI 1.85–3.47). Therefore, taking into account the relatively low prices of herring, its high vitamin D content, as well as its influence on total vitamin D intake, it could be beneficial to recommend young women to increase herring intake in order to increase dietary vitamin D intake and to meet its recommendations.

Highlights

Vitamin D is a micronutrient widely discussed over the years
Other studies indicate that vitamin D supplementation might improve vascular function in chronic kidney disease patients [15], while its higher concentration may reduce the risk of fractures in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients [16]
The study group distributed by regions (6 regions) and voivodeships (16 voivodeships in Poland) is presented in Table 1, while the distribution within regions/voivodeships was verified for its representativeness based on a comparison with the Statistics Poland data

Summary

Introduction

Vitamin D is a micronutrient widely discussed over the years. Its importance especially for the skeletal system is well known, as it promotes calcium and phosphorus absorption in the gut, and maintains their adequate concentrations and bone growth [1]. Other meta-analyses show that its high concentrations are found to be associated with a decreased risk of cardiometabolic disorders (cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome) among middle-aged and elderly populations [7], breast cancer in premenopausal women [8] and autoimmune thyroid disease among adults in general [9]. Other studies indicate that vitamin D supplementation might improve vascular function in chronic kidney disease patients [15], while its higher concentration may reduce the risk of fractures in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients [16]. Further meta-analyses indicate an association between its supplementation and improved biochemical parameters of bone metabolism in chronic kidney disease patients [17], as well as a reduced risk of acute respiratory tract infection [18], colorectal cancer incidence [19], and cancer death [20]

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