Abstract
Frequency modulation atomic force microscopy (FM-AFM) allows atomic-scale imaging at the solid-liquid interface regardless of the conductivity of the sample. In addition, combined with a three-dimensional (3D) tip scanning technique, it allows direct visualization of 3D distributions of mobile water (i.e., hydration structures) and flexible molecular chains. These unique features open up various possibilities in the nanoscale or even subnanoscale studies on the biological interfaces and phenomena. Here, we present an overview of the basic principle of these in-liquid AFM techniques and their applications to the studies on biological systems such as lipid membranes, proteins, and exosomes.
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