Abstract
How pilots judge an airplane's position and movement relative to objects on the earth's surface is considered in relation to the size distance invariance hypothesis. Factors that cause systematic departures from size, distance, and angular position constancies are identified, including effects of viewing real and virtual imaging displays. Bias errors in spatial judgments and associated problems in flight are analyzed in terms of the independent and intervening variables, most notably the misaccommodation of the eyes. Two theoretical partial explanations for the anomalous effect the zoom-lens hypothesis and the neural-signals hypothesis—are discussed in relation to recent experimental findings.
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