Abstract
Many species of fish rely on their visual systems to interact with conspecifics and these interactions can lead to collective behavior. Individual-based models have been used to predict collective interactions; however, these models generally make simplistic assumptions about the sensory systems that are applied without proper empirical testing to different species. This could limit our ability to predict (and test empirically) collective behavior in species with very different sensory requirements. In this study, we characterized components of the visual system in two species of cyprinid fish known to engage in visually dependent collective interactions (zebrafish Danio rerio and golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas) and derived quantitative predictions about the positioning of individuals within schools. We found that both species had relatively narrow binocular and blind fields and wide visual coverage. However, golden shiners had more visual coverage in the vertical plane (binocular field extending behind the head) and higher visual acuity than zebrafish. The centers of acute vision (areae) of both species projected in the fronto-dorsal region of the visual field, but those of the zebrafish projected more dorsally than those of the golden shiner. Based on this visual sensory information, we predicted that: (a) predator detection time could be increased by >1,000% in zebrafish and >100% in golden shiners with an increase in nearest neighbor distance, (b) zebrafish schools would have a higher roughness value (surface area/volume ratio) than those of golden shiners, (c) and that nearest neighbor distance would vary from 8 to 20 cm to visually resolve conspecific striping patterns in both species. Overall, considering between-species differences in the sensory system of species exhibiting collective behavior could change the predictions about the positioning of individuals in the group as well as the shape of the school, which can have implications for group cohesion. We suggest that more effort should be invested in assessing the role of the sensory system in shaping local interactions driving collective behavior.
Highlights
Animals in social groups often rely on the behavior of nearby conspecifics to obtain information about their environment (Dall et al, 2005)
We studied specific properties of the visual system that may be involved in the detection of conspecifics while animals are in schools: the visual field configuration, the density and distribution of retinal ganglion cells as well as eye size to estimate visual acuity, and the location of the center of acute vision
Concluding remarks In the present study, we developed novel quantitative predictions for key parameters underlying social interactions of zebrafish and golden shiners based on properties of their visual system
Summary
Animals in social groups often rely on the behavior of nearby conspecifics to obtain information about their environment (Dall et al, 2005). The use of both vision and the lateral line together allow an individual to assess important cues during schooling interactions. In saithe (Pollachus virens) the lateral line is used to assess changes in the speed and direction of neighbors, while the visual system provides cues about neighbor position (Partridge & Pitcher, 1980). Social fish in visually obscure waters (e.g., fast-flowing, high sediment) place greater emphasis on the use of their chemosensory or mechanosensory (i.e., lateral line) systems to detect conspecifics (Pitcher & Parrish, 1993). In species inhabiting clear waters with low turbidity and readily available downwelling light, visual cues are spatially and temporally more reliable (Heuschele et al, 2009; Hogan & Laskowski, 2013)
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