Abstract
Epizootics of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) have resulted in the deaths of millions of birds leading to huge financial losses to the poultry industry worldwide. The roles of migratory wild birds in the harbouring, mutation, and transmission of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), and the lack of broad-spectrum prophylactic vaccines present imminent threats of a global panzootic. To prevent this, control measures that include effective AIV surveillance programmes, treatment regimens, and universal vaccines are being developed and analysed for their effectiveness. We reviewed the epidemiology of AIVs with regards to past avian influenza (AI) outbreaks in birds. The AIV surveillance programmes in wild and domestic birds, as well as their roles in AI control were also evaluated. We discussed the limitations of the currently used AI vaccines, which necessitated the development of a universal vaccine. We evaluated the current development of AI vaccines based upon virus-like particles (VLPs), particularly those displaying the matrix-2 ectodomain (M2e) peptide. Finally, we highlighted the prospects of these VLP vaccines as universal vaccines with the potential of preventing an AI panzootic.
Highlights
The earliest recorded outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in domestic birds was in 1878 in Italy when it was described as ‘fowl plague’ [1]
avian influenza viruses (AIVs) surveillance programmes that focus on dead wild birds will not provide sufficient insights into the LPAIV genotypes harboured by wild birds [59]
HPAIV outbreaks have led to severe loses to the poultry industry worldwide
Summary
The earliest recorded outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in domestic birds was in 1878 in Italy when it was described as ‘fowl plague’ [1]. The H7N7, which causes LPAI has been shown to acquire enhanced pathogenicity following host adaptation, and AIVs of the H7 subtype have remained in circulation in the USA over the past decade [46]. This may be correlated to the proliferation of HPAIVs of the. The ability of AIVs to evolve, acquire enhanced pathogenicity, adapt to their hosts, and evade their hosts’ immune defences and the abilities of their migratory hosts to spread various subtypes of AIVs to new locations present an imminent threat of a global panzootic.
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