Viewing AIDS from a glycobiological perspective: potential linkages to the human fetoembryonic defence system hypothesis.

Abstract

The primary molecular changes that lead to development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are very poorly understood, as are the mechanisms underlying the protection of the developing human from the maternal immune response. Recent data that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may be using the glycosylation system of the T lymphocytes to acquire glycans for its glycoproteins that enable it to disrupt carbohydrate dependent immune cell interactions or induce aberrant immune reactions. Consistent with this hypothesis, gp120 from HIV infected human H9 lymphoblastoid cells expresses biantennary N-linked glycans with a bisecting GlcNAc sequence on 11% of their total oligosaccharides. This specific carbohydrate sequence has recently been shown to protect K562 erythroleukemic cells from natural killer (NK) cell responses when presented on the cell surface. We have recently demonstrated that bisecting biantennary type N-linked glycans are also expressed on the human zona pellucida (ZP); previous lectin binding studies indicate that is also expressed on human spermatozoa. Thus both the human gametes and HIV produced by H9 cells carry this same protective carbohydrate epitope on their outer surfaces. Human alpha-fetoprotein expressed in the developing human also carries the bisecting GlcNAc sequence, indicating that it may be suppressing the emerging fetal immune response by using its carbohydrate sequence as a functional group. We have suggested that the developing human and the gametes are also protected by soluble immunosuppressive glycoproteins found in the amniotic fluid and seminal plasma known as glycodelin-A (GdA) and glycodelin-S (GdS) respectively. Structural analysis of their N-linked oligosaccharides combined with other functional studies suggest that GdA and GdS employ their very unusual carbohydrate sequences as functional groups that enable them to manifest their immunosuppressive activities. GdA and GdS are significant components of our recently proposed model for the protection of the developing human and gametes designated the human fetoembryonic defence system hypothesis. A striking relationship now emerging is that the same unusual carbohydrate sequences associated with these immunosuppressive glycodelins are also specifically expressed on intravascular helminthic parasites, Helicobacter pylori, human tumour cells, and HIV infected T lymphocytes. The information presented in this review suggests that two new corollaries should be added to our recently proposed defence system hypothesis: (i) mimicry or acquisition of glycans that are used in this protective system by pathogens or tumour cells may enable them to either subvert or misdirect the human immune response, thereby greatly increasing their pathogenicity; and (ii) expression of glycoproteins used in this system by normal cells and tissues outside the reproductive system may protect them from immune responses, especially in those cases where major histocompatibility recognition is either absent or minimal. A better understanding of this hypothesis and its corollaries may enable us to address the molecular mechanisms underlying not only AIDS but also a host of other very serious pathological conditions in the human.