Abstract
Nanocellulose is cellulose in the form of nanostructures, i.e., features not exceeding 100 nm at least in one dimension. These nanostructures include nanofibrils, found in bacterial cellulose; nanofibers, present particularly in electrospun matrices; and nanowhiskers, nanocrystals, nanorods, and nanoballs. These structures can be further assembled into bigger two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) nano-, micro-, and macro-structures, such as nanoplatelets, membranes, films, microparticles, and porous macroscopic matrices. There are four main sources of nanocellulose: bacteria (Gluconacetobacter), plants (trees, shrubs, herbs), algae (Cladophora), and animals (Tunicata). Nanocellulose has emerged for a wide range of industrial, technology, and biomedical applications, namely for adsorption, ultrafiltration, packaging, conservation of historical artifacts, thermal insulation and fire retardation, energy extraction and storage, acoustics, sensorics, controlled drug delivery, and particularly for tissue engineering. Nanocellulose is promising for use in scaffolds for engineering of blood vessels, neural tissue, bone, cartilage, liver, adipose tissue, urethra and dura mater, for repairing connective tissue and congenital heart defects, and for constructing contact lenses and protective barriers. This review is focused on applications of nanocellulose in skin tissue engineering and wound healing as a scaffold for cell growth, for delivering cells into wounds, and as a material for advanced wound dressings coupled with drug delivery, transparency and sensorics. Potential cytotoxicity and immunogenicity of nanocellulose are also discussed.
Highlights
Cellulose is a linear polymer of glucose and is the most abundant biopolymer on Earth
Our results showed that bacterial cellulose loaded with curcumin, and with its degradation products obtained at 180 ◦C, reduced the number of growing colonies of Staphylococcus to ferulic acid, feruloylmethane and vanillin [270]
Nanocellulose is a promising material for a wide range of applications in industry, technology, biotechnology, and medicine, including tissue engineering and wound healing
Summary
Cellulose is a linear polymer of glucose and is the most abundant biopolymer on Earth. In 2007, an important paper, dedicated to the use of nanocellulose in tissue engineering, was a study by Bodin et al [152], focused on creating bacterial cellulose nanofibrous scaffolds functionalized with cell adhesion-mediating GRGDS oligopeptides. In 2009, the papers dedicated to biomedical application of nanocellulose continued with a review article by Klemm et al [21], dealing with the types, sources, modes of preparation, and properties of nanocellulose, with focus on bacterial cellulose as a suitable material for wound dressings and body implants, such as replacements of blood vessels and bone tissue [21]. Cellulose nanofibrils present in bacterial nanocellulose, and other forms of nanocellulose, such as nanowhiskers or nanocrystals, were shown to have great potential in tissue engineering and in other biomedical applications [183]
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