Abstract
Previously published data from our group and others demonstrate that human milk oligosaccharide (HMOs), as well as milk and infant fecal microbial profiles, vary by geography. However, little is known about the geographical variation of other milk-borne factors, such as lactose and protein, as well as the associations among these factors and microbial community structures in milk and infant feces. Here, we characterized and contrasted concentrations of milk-borne lactose, protein, and HMOs, and examined their associations with milk and infant fecal microbiomes in samples collected in 11 geographically diverse sites. Although geographical site was strongly associated with milk and infant fecal microbiomes, both sample types assorted into a smaller number of community state types based on shared microbial profiles. Similar to HMOs, concentrations of lactose and protein also varied by geography. Concentrations of HMOs, lactose, and protein were associated with differences in the microbial community structures of milk and infant feces and in the abundance of specific taxa. Taken together, these data suggest that the composition of human milk, even when produced by relatively healthy women, differs based on geographical boundaries and that concentrations of HMOs, lactose, and protein in milk are related to variation in milk and infant fecal microbial communities.
Highlights
Human milk is a complex biological fluid that provides all the nutritional requirements that support infant growth and development
While most proteins are completely digested in the small intestine [1], partially digested proteins reaching the large intestine may be utilized by microbes [12]; this is understudied in infants
As human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and other components of milk, including lactose and protein, are able to shape microbial abundance, we hypothesized that variation in these milk factors could be related to differences in the structure of milk and infant fecal microbial communities, as well as to the abundance of specific bacterial taxa
Summary
Human milk is a complex biological fluid that provides all the nutritional requirements that support infant growth and development This is, in part, attributed to the fact that milk is a rich source of lactose, lipids, human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), protein, and numerous other micronutrients [1]. As HMOs and other components of milk, including lactose and protein, are able to shape microbial abundance, we hypothesized that variation in these milk factors could be related to differences in the structure of milk and infant fecal microbial communities, as well as to the abundance of specific bacterial taxa. We investigated relationships between and among microbial communities, and the concentrations of milk lactose, protein, and HMOs in milk and infant fecal samples collected from maternal–infant dyads in the INSPIRE study
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