Abstract
BackgroundA dearth in understanding the behavior of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the scale of populations and individuals has left important management issues, particularly related to human-elephant conflict (HEC), unresolved. Evaluation of differences in behavior and decision-making among individual elephants across groups in response to changing local ecological settings is essential to fill this gap in knowledge and to improve our approaches towards the management and conservation of elephants.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe hypothesized certain behavioral decisions that would be made by Asian elephants as reflected in their residence time and movement rates, time-activity budgets, social interactions and group dynamics in response to resource availability and human disturbance in their habitat. This study is based on 200 h of behavioral observations on 60 individually identified elephants and a 184-km2 grid-based survey of their natural and anthropogenic habitats within and outside the Bannerghatta National Park, southern India during the dry season. At a general population level, the behavioral decisions appeared to be guided by the gender, age and group-type of the elephants. At the individual level, the observed variation could be explained only by the idiosyncratic behaviors of individuals and that of their associating conspecific individuals. Recursive partitioning classification trees for residence time of individual elephants indicated that the primary decisions were taken by individuals, independently of their above-mentioned biological and ecological attributes.Conclusions/SignificanceDecision-making by Asian elephants thus appears to be determined at two levels, that of the population and, more importantly, the individual. Models based on decision-making by individual elephants have the potential to predict conflict in fragmented landscapes that, in turn, could aid in mitigating HEC. Thus, we must target individuals, in addition to populations, in our efforts to manage and conserve this threatened species, particularly in human-dominated landscapes.
Highlights
Often-neglected, aspect of behavioral ecology concerns the ability of animal populations and individuals to respond to changes in their immediate environment, both in the long- and the short- term
Our results show that elephants did have significantly higher Observed Residence Times in strata that had relatively greater availability of forage (G-test of goodness of fit, G = 270.33, df = 2, p,0.001), water (G = 403.50, p,0.001) and shade (G = 168.13, p,0.001), and those with relatively low human disturbance (G = 231.99, p,0.001) than what would be expected if Observed Residence Times depended on the area available in each kind of stratum independent of resource availability and human disturbance in these strata (Figure 1)
Many protected areas in the Indian subcontinent that harbor a high density of elephants record intense human-elephant conflict in their fringe villages if not within the protected area itself [24]
Summary
Often-neglected, aspect of behavioral ecology concerns the ability of animal populations and individuals to respond to changes in their immediate environment, both in the long- and the short- term. Behavioral responses encompassed by varying time-activity budgets, spatial and temporal preferences for certain habitats or the avoidance of areas in response to certain ecological parameters have been documented extensively [1,2] Such responses may often be determined by relatively more biologically determined factors such as the gender, age or the typical social organization of the species concerned. What might be more problematic for animals, are the demands placed on them by short-term, unpredictable ecological changes in their environment, a classic example being of animal populations that largely occur in increasingly human-dominated landscapes This might be more challenging for large-bodied mammalian species such as the elephant that lives in complex societies but which may be able to cope with rapid environmental changes with their learning capacities and sophisticated cognitive decision-making abilities [3]. Evaluation of differences in behavior and decision-making among individual elephants across groups in response to changing local ecological settings is essential to fill this gap in knowledge and to improve our approaches towards the management and conservation of elephants
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