Abstract
BackgroundResearch studies are establishing the use of smartphone sensing to measure mental well-being. Smartphone sensor information captures behavioral patterns, and its analysis helps reveal well-being changes. Depression in diabetes goes highly underdiagnosed and underreported. The comorbidity has been associated with increased mortality and worse clinical outcomes, including poor glycemic control and self-management. Clinical-only intervention has been found to have a very modest effect on diabetes management among people with depression. Smartphone technologies could play a significant role in complementing comorbid care.ObjectiveThis study aimed to analyze the association between smartphone-sensing parameters and symptoms of depression and to explore an approach to risk-stratify people with diabetes.MethodsA cross-sectional observational study (Project SHADO—Analyzing Social and Health Attributes through Daily Digital Observation) was conducted on 47 participants with diabetes. The study’s smartphone-sensing app passively collected data regarding activity, mobility, sleep, and communication from each participant. Self-reported symptoms of depression using a validated Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) were collected once every 2 weeks from all participants. A descriptive analysis was performed to understand the representation of the participants. A univariate analysis was performed on each derived sensing variable to compare behavioral changes between depression states—those with self-reported major depression (PHQ-9>9) and those with none (PHQ-9≤9). A classification predictive modeling, using supervised machine-learning methods, was explored using derived sensing variables as input to construct and compare classifiers that could risk-stratify people with diabetes based on symptoms of depression.ResultsA noticeably high prevalence of self-reported depression (30 out of 47 participants, 63%) was found among the participants. Between depression states, a significant difference was found for average activity rates (daytime) between participant-day instances with symptoms of major depression (mean 16.06 [SD 14.90]) and those with none (mean 18.79 [SD 16.72]), P=.005. For average number of people called (calls made and received), a significant difference was found between participant-day instances with symptoms of major depression (mean 5.08 [SD 3.83]) and those with none (mean 8.59 [SD 7.05]), P<.001. These results suggest that participants with diabetes and symptoms of major depression exhibited lower activity through the day and maintained contact with fewer people. Using all the derived sensing variables, the extreme gradient boosting machine-learning classifier provided the best performance with an average cross-validation accuracy of 79.07% (95% CI 74%-84%) and test accuracy of 81.05% to classify symptoms of depression.ConclusionsParticipants with diabetes and self-reported symptoms of major depression were observed to show lower levels of social contact and lower activity levels during the day. Although findings must be reproduced in a broader randomized controlled study, this study shows promise in the use of predictive modeling for early detection of symptoms of depression in people with diabetes using smartphone-sensing information.
Highlights
BackgroundThere exists growing evidence regarding the bidirectional association between diabetes and depression [1,2]
These results suggest that participants with diabetes and symptoms of major depression exhibited lower activity through the day and maintained contact with fewer people
Using all the derived sensing variables, the extreme gradient boosting machine-learning classifier provided the best performance with an average cross-validation accuracy of 79.07% and test accuracy of 81.05% to classify symptoms of depression
Summary
BackgroundThere exists growing evidence regarding the bidirectional association between diabetes (type 2) and depression [1,2]. Depression increases the risk of nonadherence to medical treatment by 27% to 30% [5,6,7], which is a significant problem in diabetes self-care. Comorbidity (diabetes and depression) has been associated with increased health care costs. Depression might increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes with an increase in insulin resistance and reduction of glucose uptake in adults [11]. Comorbidity of depression and diabetes is associated with a high likelihood of complications [12,13], lower quality of life [14], increased mortality [15], poor management and control [16,17], and poor disease outcomes through decreased physical activity [18,19] as reported in studies covering a diverse population across age groups. Smartphone technologies could play a significant role in complementing comorbid care
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