Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease in which the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) depletes due to the progressive loss of nigrostriatal neurons. Therefore, DA measurement might be a useful diagnostic tool for targeting the early stages of PD, as well as helping to optimize DA replacement therapy. Moreover, DA sensing appears to be a useful analytical tool in complex biological systems in PD studies. To support the feasibility of this concept, this mini-review explores the currently developed graphene-based biosensors dedicated to DA detection. We discuss various graphene modifications designed for high-performance DA sensing electrodes alongside their analytical performances and interference studies, which we listed based on their limit of detection in biological samples. Moreover, graphene-based biosensors for optical DA detection are also presented herein. Regarding clinical relevance, we explored the development trends of graphene-based electrochemical sensing of DA as they relate to point-of-care testing suitable for the site-of-location diagnostics needed for personalized PD management. In this field, the biosensors are developed into smartphone-connected systems for intelligent disease management. However, we highlighted that the focus should be on the clinical utility rather than analytical and technical performance.
Highlights
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common human neurodegenerative disorder, after Alzheimer’s disease (AD), with its incidence ranging from 10 to 18 per 100,000 people/year
PD is a neurodegenerative disease in which depletion of the catecholamine DA in the nigrostriatal system appears due to the loss of nigral neurons and striatal terminals
An individual develops motor symptoms, including bradykinesia, rigidity, tremor, and postural instability, which result from this drop in DA level
Summary
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common human neurodegenerative disorder, after Alzheimer’s disease (AD), with its incidence ranging from 10 to 18 per 100,000 people/year. An individual develops motor symptoms, including bradykinesia, rigidity, tremor, and postural instability, which result from this drop in DA level This means that DA level measurement might be a useful diagnostic tool for targeting the early stage of the defunctionalization of DA-producing neurons (nigrostriatal dopaminergic denervation) to enable the development of approaches to retard progression or even prevent the disease [4]. Numerous research efforts have been devoted to developing various techniques for DA quantification in body fluids, such as blood and CSF, including mass spectrometry coupled with separation techniques and immunochemical, fluorescence-based, and electrochemical methods [11] These highly reliable approaches are generally well accepted, they still suffer from the disadvantages of being high cost, time consuming, and laborious, with requirements for highly skilled personnel [7]. The challenges relating to the need for point-of-care (POC) testing is discussed in this report
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