Usefulness of experimental models to understand the vascular effects of estrogens

Abstract

Hormonal replacement therapy does not prevent cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women. In contrast, the incidence of cardiovascular diseases is higher in men than in premenopausal women but increases in postmenopausal women, and all animal studies demonstrate a prevention of fatty streak deposit by estradiol. Although estradiol improves the lipoprotein profile, this effect can account for only a minor part of the protective effect. Endothelium appears to be an important target for estradiol, because this hormone potentiates endothelial nitric oxide (NO) production, thus promoting the beneficial effects of NO, such as vasorelaxation and inhibition of platelet aggregation. Estradiol accelerates endothelial regrowth, thus favoring vascular healing, and prevents apoptosis of endothelial cells. Estradiol prevents fatty streak deposit through a mechanism which is clearly independent of NO. The immuno-inflammatory system appears to play a key role in the development of fatty streak deposit as well as in atherosclerotic plaque rupture. Mice deficient either in monocyte-macrophages or in lymphocytes are partially protected against fatty streak deposit. Interestingly, the atheroprotective effect of estradiol is absent in mice deficient in T and B lymphocytes. Most of these effects of estradiol are mediated by estrogen receptor alpha, and are independent of estrogen receptor beta. Thus, the inflammatory-immune system appears to be also a major target of estrogens. However, the effects of estrogens on the immuno-inflammatory system appear ambiguous, as in some models, estradiol rather promotes inflammation (by increasing interferon gamma which could elicit plaque destabilization). A better understanding of the mechanisms of estrogens on the normal and atheromatous arteries is required and should help to optimize the prevention of cardiovascular disease after menopause.