Abstract
Over the last decade, knowledge has significantly increased on the taxonomic identity and distribution of dinoflagellates of the genera Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa. Additionally, a number of hitherto unknown bioactive metabolites have been described, while the role of these compounds in ciguatera poisoning (CP) remains to be clarified. Ciguatoxins and maitotoxins are very toxic compounds produced by these dinoflagellates and have been described since the 1980s. Ciguatoxins are generally described as the main contributors to this food intoxication. Recent reports of CP in temperate waters of the Canary Islands (Spain) and the Madeira archipelago (Portugal) triggered the need for isolation and cultivation of dinoflagellates from these areas, and their taxonomic and toxicological characterization. Maitotoxins, and specifically maitotoxin-4, has been described as one of the most toxic compounds produced by these dinoflagellates (e.g., G. excentricus) in the Canary Islands. Thus, characterization of toxin profiles of Gambierdiscus species from adjacent regions appears critical. The combination of liquid chromatography coupled to either low- or high-resolution mass spectrometry allowed for characterization of several strains of Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa from the Mediterranean Sea and the Canary Islands. Maitotoxin-3, two analogues tentatively identified as gambieric acid C and D, a putative gambierone analogue and a putative gambieroxide were detected in all G. australes strains from Menorca and Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain) while only maitotoxin-3 was present in an F. paulensis strain of the same region. An unidentified Gambierdiscus species (Gambierdiscus sp.2) from Crete (Greece) showed a different toxin profile, detecting both maitotoxin-3 and gambierone, while the availability of a G. excentricus strain from the Canary Islands (Spain) confirmed the presence of maitotoxin-4 in this species. Overall, this study shows that toxin profiles not only appear to be species-specific but probably also specific to larger geographic regions.
Highlights
Ciguatera Poisoning (CP) is described as a food intoxication endemic in tropical and subtropical areas of the world
The methanol-soluble fraction (MSF) and the dichloromethane-soluble fraction (DSF) of each crude extract of dinoflagellate cell pellets were analyzed by LC-MS/MS monitoring MTXs, as well as gambierone (Table 2)
Reaction Monitoring (MRM) method in negative ionization mode screened for six MTXs (MTX1, MTX2, MTX3, MTX4, desulfo-MTX1 and didehydro-demethyl-desulfo-MTX1), as well as gambierone
Summary
Ciguatera Poisoning (CP) is described as a food intoxication endemic in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The poisoning is caused by the consumption of fish or shellfish that accumulate toxic compounds produced by benthic dinoflagellates of the genus Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa [1]. The two main toxin groups produced by these dinoflagellates are ciguatoxins (CTXs) and maitotoxins (MTXs) [2]. CTXs are considered the main toxins responsible for CP as their lipophilic character allows for intestinal absorption and accumulation. They are cyclic polyether compounds of around 1100 Da being classified as Pacific (P-CTXs), Caribbean (C-CTXs) and Indian (I-CTXs) ciguatoxins. Different CTX analogues from these groups have been detected in fish tissue associated to a CP case, while only a few
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