Abstract
Electronic (e−) invoices potentially enhance environmental sustainability in several stages from production of paper to its usage. This study investigates empirically to what extent a set of firm characteristics and external factors associate with the probability to send e-invoices and with the intensity of usage, based on a representative survey of approximately 1500 Swedish firms. An invoice is considered electronic when it is exchanged in an automated system between the buyer and the seller. The analysis includes firms with one employee or larger across all industries except, agriculture, fishery, forestry, public administration and defence. Descriptive statistics show that 42 per cent of the firms in 2016 send e-invoices. By use of a two-part model, estimation results reveal that both internal and external factors are associated with the e-invoice behaviour. The probability of adoption is significantly higher for firms with government sector clients and a large number of invoices. The intensity estimation exhibits a reverse pattern, where the number of e-invoices is most strongly associated with the invoice pattern. Another internal factor of importance for the extent of e-invoices is the level of labour productivity. Construction firms have the highest probability to adopt e-invoices and manufacturing firms scale-up the usage. Besides this, neither industry affiliation nor size-class is crucial. When size-class is estimated separately, it appears that medium-sized and large firms strongly associate their invoice adoption with type of client, while the extent of the activity is solely related to internal factors. For micro enterprises and small firms, kind of client is the most important aspect at all.
Highlights
Aggregate and conceptual analyses point to a number of possible benefits with electronic invoices, not least for the environment through reduced used of paper, and for the economy and society due to increased efficiency and simplicity (Capgemini, 2009; Sandberg et al, 2009; European Commission, 2009; Korkman et al, 2010; Moberg et al, 2010; Keifer, 2011; Ollo-Lopez and Aramendia-Muneta, 2012; Koch, 2016; Yip and Bocken, 2018)
Across the European Union (EU 28), only one out of four firms with ten or more employees sends e-invoices to their clients in 2017.1 Directive 2014/55/EU is an attempt by the European Union to support sustainability by introducing a European norm for e-invoices that all contracting public authorities have to accept
By using a novel and representative country dataset (Sweden), including firms with one employee or larger, this study investigates empirically how firm characteristics and external factors associate with the probability to send e-invoices and the intensity of usage
Summary
Aggregate and conceptual analyses point to a number of possible benefits with electronic (eÀ) invoices, not least for the environment through reduced used of paper, and for the economy and society due to increased efficiency and simplicity (Capgemini, 2009; Sandberg et al, 2009; European Commission, 2009; Korkman et al, 2010; Moberg et al, 2010; Keifer, 2011; Ollo-Lopez and Aramendia-Muneta, 2012; Koch, 2016; Yip and Bocken, 2018). The aim of this study is to investigate empirically to what extent a set of common firm-specific characteristics (size, industry, invoice pattern and productive capacity) as well as external factors (kind of clients and access to advanced information and communication technology, ICT, infrastructure) relate to the use of e-invoices in firms. Both the probability to send e-invoices and the intensity of usage (measured as the number of e-invoices sent) are estimated
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