Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene as a biomarker of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: biological monitoring strategies and methodology for determining biological exposure indices for various work environments

Abstract

This article reviews the published studies on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) as a biomarker of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in work environments. Sampling and analysis strategies as well as a methodology for determining biological exposure indices (BEIs) of 1-OHP in urine for different work environments are proposed for the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to PAHs. Owing to the kinetics of absorption of pyrene by different exposure routes and excretion of 1-OHP in urine, in general, 1-OHP urinary excretion levels increase during the course of a workday, reaching maximum values 3-9 h after the end of work. When the contribution of dermal exposure is important, post-shift 1-OHP excretion can however be lower than pre-shift levels in the case where a worker has been exposed occupationally to PAHs on the day prior to sampling. In addition, 1-OHP excretion levels in either pre-shift, post-shift or evening samples increase during the course of a work-week, levelling off after three consecutive days of work. Consequently, ideally, for a first characterization of a work environment and for an indication of the major exposure route, considering a 5-day work-week (Monday to Friday), the best sampling strategy would be to collect all micturitions over 24 h starting on Monday morning. Alternatively, collection of pre-shift, post-shift and evening urine samples on the first day of the work-week and at the end of the work-week is recommended. For routine monitoring, pre-shift samples on Monday and post-shift samples on Friday should be collected when pulmonary exposure is the main route of exposure. On the other hand, pre-shift samples on Monday and Friday should be collected when the contribution of skin uptake is important. The difference between beginning and end of work-week excretion will give an indication of the average exposure over the workweek. Pre-shift samples on the first day of the work-week will indicate background values, and, hence, reflect general environment exposure and body burden of pyrene and/or its metabolites. On the other hand, since PAH profile can vary substantially in different work sites, a single BEI cannot apply to all workplaces. A simple equation was therefore developed to establish BEIs for workers exposed to PAHs in different work environments by using a BEI already established for a given work environment and by introducing a correction factor corresponding to the ratio of the airborne concentration of the sum of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) equivalent to that of pyrene. The sum of BaP equivalent concentrations represents the sum of carcinogenic PAH concentrations expressed as BaP using toxic equivalent factors. Based on a previously estimated BEI of 2.3 μmol 1-OHP mol-1 creatinine for coke-oven workers, BEIs of 4.4, 8.0 and 9.8 μmol 1-OHP mol-1 creatinine were respectively calculated for vertical pin Söderberg workers, anode workers and pre-bake workers of aluminium plants and a BEI of 1.2 μmol 1-OHP mol-1 creatinine was estimated for iron foundry workers. This approach will allow the potential risk of cancer in individuals occupationally exposed to PAHs to be assessed better.