Urbanization and road-use determines Calotropis procera distribution in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plain, India

Abstract

Urbanization can be defined as local increase in the density of inhabitants coupled with increased per capita energy consumption and extensive modifications of the environment (including the microclimate) (Gilbert 1991; Vitousek et al. 1997). This process generates unstable ecosystems that depend on large inputs of energy, and where great amounts of waste materials are accumulated (Stearns 1970; McDonnell and Pickett 1990). Despite covering a small fraction of the Earth’s surface (<5%), urban environments have a widespread influence on surrounding ecosystems (Vitousek et al. 1997; Goudie 2000). Fast growth of cities is promoting an increasing interest in urban ecosystems and in the impact of urbanization on distinct biotas (Vitousek et al. 1997; Grimm 1997). This ongoing growth of urban agglomerations leads to changes in biodiversity, including the loss of urban green cover, close vicinity forests, and other natural areas (Von der Lippe and Kowarik 2007, 2008). Ecological studies of such ecosystems are essential to reduce local and regional impacts of urbanization (Gilbert 1991; Niemela 1999).