Abstract
In some vertebrate species, family units are typically formed when sexually mature individuals delay dispersal and independent breeding to remain as subordinates in a breeding group. This behaviour has been intensively studied in gregarious species but has also been described in non-social species where ecological and evolutionary drivers are less known. Here, we explore factors that favour delayed dispersal and family living and potential benefits associated with this strategy in a non-social, monogamous species (the burrowing owl, Athene cunicularia) occupying urban and rural habitats. Our results show that family units arise when first-year individuals, mainly males, delay their dispersal to stay in their natal nests with their parents. This delayed dispersal, while still uncommon, was more prevalent in urban (7%) than in rural (3%) habitats, and in areas with high conspecific density and productivity. Birds delaying dispersal contributed to the genetic pool of the offspring in 25% of the families analysed, but did not increase the productivity of the nests where they remained. However, their presence was related to an improvement in the body condition of chicks, which was ultimately linked to a slightly positive effect in offspring future survival probabilities. Finally, delayed dispersers were recruited as breeders in high-quality urban territories and closer to their natal nests than individuals dispersing during their first year of life. Thus, our results suggest that delaying dispersal may be mainly related to opportunities to inheriting a good quality territory, especially for males. Our study contributes to understanding the role played by habitat quality in promoting delayed dispersal and family living, not only in social but also non-social species, highlighting its impact in the ecology and evolution of animal populations.
Highlights
In some vertebrate species, family units are typically formed when sexually mature individuals delay dispersal and independent breeding to remain as subordinates in a breeding group
Sexually mature individuals may delay dispersal and independent breeding to remain as subordinates in a group, forming families and even cooperative units
Ringing data show that extra-individuals in these family units were mainly offspring of the main breeders born in the previous breeding season, both when the social identity of all individuals was known as well as when only one of the breeders was of known identity (n = 22 cases; Table S1)
Summary
Family units are typically formed when sexually mature individuals delay dispersal and independent breeding to remain as subordinates in a breeding group. Our results show that family units arise when first-year individuals, mainly males, delay their dispersal to stay in their natal nests with their parents This delayed dispersal, while still uncommon, was more prevalent in urban (7%) than in rural (3%) habitats, and in areas with high conspecific density and productivity. Larger population densities and higher reproductive parameters in urban than in rural habitats have been recorded in different city-dweller species[41,44,45,46], suggesting a significant role for predation release in their success[47,48] These species may take advantage of the new environment, they may face new ecological conditions and selection pressures that can induce changes in behavioural[41,49,50,51,52] and reproductive strategies[36,53,54]. These changes may translate into differences in dispersal patterns[55,56] and even population structuring[57,58,59]
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