Unraveling the influence of Sb dopant to reversible capacity and initial Coulombic efficiency of SnO2-graphene as anodes for sodium storage

Abstract

Sodium storage materials based on conversion and alloying reactions often suffer from low initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE). Most of literature shows that the SnO2-based anode commonly reveals an ICE below 50 %, and the reasons could be attributed to the partial reversibility in conversion reaction by forming an intermediate phase. This work focuses on using an element doping strategy to suppress the formation of an inert intermediate phase and improves the ICE for SnO2-based anodes in sodium storage applications. Mechanisms of performance enhancement are also carefully investigated. The 3 % Sb doped sample is demonstrated with enhanced electrochemical performance. Specifically, it delivers an initial discharge capacity of 847 mAh g−1 at 50 mA g−1, combining an average enhanced ICE of 57.1 % (37.8 % for the undoped comparison), and it also presents a good rate performance of 206 mAh g−1 at a high current density of 1600 mA g−1. It is found that the Sb dopant reduces the specific capacity of active materials, but it enhances reaction reversibility; improves the overall conductivity of active materials, but does not directly enhance the Na+ diffusion coefficient; helps to restrain the formation of inert phase (the SnO phase) in sodium storage reactions to improve reversibility and initial Coulombic efficiency. Therefore, reversible capacities and initial Coulombic efficiencies can be effectively enhanced after introducing the Sb dopant at an optimized percentage. This work could provide valuable inspiration for designing conversion and alloying-type anodes for sodium storage applications via ion doping methods.