Unpacking the Concept of Complexity in Instructed SLA Research: Towards an Acquisitional Definition

<p><em>Over the past few decades, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has seen a remarkable increase of interest in the study of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), which “investigates second language (L2) learning or acquisition that occurs as a result of teaching” (Loewen, 2014, p. 2). The importance of this subfield has particularly been emphasized for the sake of adult L2 learners, who, due to biological and cognitive constraints, have difficulty acquiring a target language (TL) solely based on naturalistic input (e.g., Han, 2004; Long, 1990). For this, ISLA research has suggested the utilization of focus on form (FonF), a pedagogical approach that attempts to engage learners’ metalinguistic attention in an otherwise solely meaning-based environment (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long, 1991; Long & Robinson, 1998). According to Doughty and Williams (1998), FonF involves an array of pedagogical options, ranging from implicit techniques (e.g., input flood, input enhancement, and recasts) that attempt to attract leaners’ attention to form, to explicit techniques (e.g., processing instruction, consciousness-raising, and dictogloss) that attempt to direct their attention to form.</em></p>

Over the past few decades, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has seen a remarkable increase of interest in the study of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), which “investigates second language (L2) learning or acquisition that occurs as a result of teaching” (Loewen, 2014, p. 2). The importance of this subfield has particularly been emphasized for the sake of adult L2 learners, who, due to biological and cognitive constraints, have difficulty acquiring a target language (TL) solely based on naturalistic input (e.g., Han, 2004; Long, 1990). For this, ISLA research has suggested the utilization of focus on form (FonF), a pedagogical approach that attempts to engage learners’ metalinguistic attention in an otherwise solely meaning-based environment (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long, 1991; Long & Robinson, 1998). According to Doughty and Williams (1998), FonF involves an array of pedagogical options, ranging from implicit techniques (e.g., input flood, input enhancement, and recasts) that attempt to attract leaners’ attention to form, to explicit techniques (e.g., processing instruction, consciousness-raising, and dictogloss) that attempt to direct their attention to form.

Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) is a subfield of second language acquisition (SLA) that investigates any type of second language (L2) learning or acquisition that occurs as a result of the manipulation of the L2 learning context or processes. Learners' self‐study of the target language is also considered part of ISLA; however, ISLA research has generally focused more on traditional, face‐to‐face classrooms, as well as online instruction. The defining feature of L2 instruction is that there is an attempt, either by teachers or instructional materials, to guide, facilitate, and manipulate the process of L2 acquisition.

Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) research has recently attracted more focal attention due to the publications of three books and as the theme of the 2016 Second Language Research Forum (SLRF) conference that celebrated its 35th anniversary in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Recent definitions (e.g. Loewen, 2015) have underscored the context (instructed vs. naturalistic setting), the ‘mechanisms of learning’ (cognitive processes), and the potential manipulation of these processes or the conditions under which such processes take place by instructional intervention. This article goes a step further to consider the curricular aspect of the ISLA context that exists within the language curriculum, the type of learning that does take place in an instructed environment and should be promoted in the instructed setting, and the pedagogical implications for the instructed L2 environment, given its curricular status (Leow & Cerezo, 2016). To this end, this article (1) provides a critical discussion of the context of ISLA, (2) presents a succinct overview of cognitive processes reported to play a role in the L2 learning process, (3) reports the findings of empirical research on implicit/incidental and explicit/intentional learning, and (4) reports on one recent study that purports to acknowledge these variables. Recommendations for future ISLA research are provided.

Language can be regarded as a carrier of culture. In the process of second language acquisition, cultural differences are the main factors causing learning disabilities. The cultures of various nationalities have both similarities and differences. In the process of intercultural communication or foreign language teaching and acquisition, the phenomenon of cultural transfer is widespread. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to draw a general conclusion through a questionnaire survey of nearly 100 college students, and on this basis, exploring the different forms and various elements of cultural migration in the process of second language acquisition and the cultural transfer to inspire the teachers and students in the second language teaching and acquisition process.

The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Acquisition Edina Torlakovi! (edina_@scs.carleton.ca) Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies; Cognitive Science, Carleton University 2214 Dunton Tower, 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6 Andrew Brook (abrook@ccs.carleton.ca) Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies; Cognitive Science, Carleton University 2216 Dunton Tower, 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6 Abstract In this paper we argue that in order to resolve the controversy in Second Language Acquisition research concerning whether or not direct instruction is needed for second language acquisition, we need to use a broader sense of ‘consciousness’ than is used by second language researchers. Block's classification of consciousness into Access and Phenomenal consciousness seems promising. We associate Phenomenal consciousness with explicit knowledge and suggest that explicit instruction is useful. It enhances linguistic competence. Introduction This paper addresses a question that is of great importance for Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research. The question is 'what should the role of consciousness in second language (L2) acquisition be?' It is important to answer this question in order to resolve one of the biggest debates in the field of SLA, namely whether or not direct instruction is necessary or even valuable in L2 acquisition. SLA researchers interested in consciousness should start by considering what others have to say about it. This is necessary to develop a comprehensive picture of consciousness. The debate in SLA needs to be informed by an adequate notion of what consciousness is. Only in this way can we reach an adequate view about its role. One place to start is to consider what is said about consciousness in philosophy. We will start by comparing the different definitions of consciousness used by SLA researchers and by philosophers. Next we will introduce the controversy over whether L2 learners need to be conscious of grammar rules to learn the target language. Then we will examine Block’s well-known distinction between access (A) consciousness and phenomenal (P) consciousness and where language, or more specifically second language, fits into this categorization. With this, we might be one step closer to understanding the role of consciousness in L2 learning/acquisition. Issues and Positions Definition(s) of Consciousness How do SLA theorists and philosophers think about consciousness? As it turns out, quite differently. Let us look at some of the similarities and differences. When SLA theorists talk about consciousness, they use the term in a quite narrow sense. Schmidt (1995), for example, points out that there are three different senses of the term 'consciousness' as it is used in SLA theory: levels of perception, noticing, and understanding. By contrast, philosophers have a broader understanding of the term. According to Clark (2001), the possibilities include wakefulness, self-awareness, availability for verbal report, availability for control of intentional action, and qualia. To determine if all these terms are discussing the same, complex entity, they need to be further defined. If one desires to apply concepts of one discipline to another (philosophy to SLA in this case), this is something that we need to know. According to Schmidt, ‘levels of perception’ could be defined as levels of a process of obtaining and perhaps processing information. Schmidt defines ‘noticing’ as rehearsal in short-term memory, while by ‘understanding’ he refers to rule understanding, i.e., grasping the meanings of rules and becoming thoroughly familiar with them. Definitions of the terms from Clark's list of possibilities might go as follows: wakefulness is defined as a state in which we are sensitive to our surroundings and in which we can process incoming information and respond to it appropriately. Self-awareness he defines as a capacity to represent ourselves and to be conscious of ourselves 'as distinct agents'. Availability for verbal report is the capacity to access our own inner states and to describe them using natural language, while qualia concerns how things feel to us. From the above, one can conclude that SLA theorists take consciousness to be something narrower than philosophers

INVESTIGATIONS IN INSTRUCTED SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. Alex Housen and Michel Pierrard (Eds.). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2005. Pp. ix + 568. $165.20 cloth. This volume is a compilation of revised and expanded papers from the 2004 Colloquium on “Instructed Second Language Learning/L'appropriation d'une langue second en milieu guidé.” Nearly all of the assembled papers report on empirical studies that investigate second language (L2) production or acquisition by language learners in a range of formal instructional contexts, from elementary school immersion classes to adult and university foreign language courses. Following the editors' introduction, the 17 subsequent chapters are organized into four sections: (a) investigating cognitive and processing mechanisms in instructed SLA, (b) investigating the role and effects of form-focused instruction, (c) investigating the role and effects of interaction and communication-focused instruction, and (d) comparing the effects of instructed and naturalistic SLA contexts. Space constraints limit a thorough discussion of each of the papers, but a few noteworthy examples from each section will be discussed here.

Since the late ′60s, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has grown enormously. Throughout its development, SLA researchers have investigated a wide range of issues including the processes involved in second language learning, as well as the psycholinguistic, affective and social factors that influence its success or failure (Spada, 2014). In light of SLA’s relevance and applicability to language teaching, recently a growing number of researchers have taken an interest in second language (L2) learning in classroom settings (Spada, 2014). The term Instructed SLA (ISLA) is currently used to indicate “theory and research that pertain directly to the L2 classroom” (Loewen, 2014, p. 1). One of the main goals of ISLA is to examine which particular types of instruction are more pedagogically effective for a particular learning target. In this short commentary, this question will be investigated in the domain of vocabulary learning. Accordingly, research on instructed vocabulary learning will be briefly reviewed to reveal several insights pertaining to L2 vocabulary pedagogy.

Acknowledgements Introduction PART ONE - BACKGROUND Introduction 1. Second language acquisition research: an overview PART TWO - THE DESCRIPTION OF LEARNER LANGUAGE Introduction 2. Learner errors and error analysis 3. Developmental patterns: order and sequence in second language acquisition 4. Variability in learner language 5. Pragmatic aspects of learner language PART THREE - EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: EXTERNAL FACTORS Introduction 6. Social factors and second language acquisition 7. Input and interaction and second language acquisition PART FOUR - EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: INTERNAL FACTORS Introduction 8. Language transfer 9. Cognitive accounts of second language acquisition 10. Linguistic universals and second language acquisition PART FIVE - EXPLAINING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Introduction 11. Individual learner differences 12. Learning strategies PART SIX - CLASSROOM SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Introduction 13. Classroom interaction and second language acquisition 14. Formal instruction and second language acquisition PART SEVEN - CONCLUSION Introduction 15. Data, theory, and applications in second language acquisition research Glossary Bibliography Author index Subject index

This entry analyzes and synthesizes various studies in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) that appeared after the publication of Frawley and Lantolf's 1985 study and expanded on sociocultural approaches based on Vygotsky's theoretical framework and methodological approach. Researchers interested in diverse facets of SLA both in and out of educational contexts have utilized sociocultural theory in a variety of ways. Some have focused more on the internal aspects of language, the mental processes involved in making and communicating meaning through language activities, while others have focused more on the social, cultural, physical, and historical contexts of second language learning and acquisition. These approaches seek to understand language development in its manifold richness and draw on the experiences and introspections of second language learners, who learn language in very different contexts and situations of development. The entry does not attempt to give a comprehensive account of all of the work that has been done using Vygotsky's core concepts to investigate second language learning, teaching, and acquisition from a sociocultural perspective, but instead focuses on such primary concepts as zone of proximal development; dynamic assessment; inner speech; private speech; the regulatory function of speech; gesture; social situation of development; and the historical and theoretical work that has been central to sociocultural approaches to SLA research and that can contribute to this effort through a reconceptualization of Vygotsky's work.

The field of second language acquisition (SLA), a relatively new field of academic study, traces its roots only to the second half of the last century. The field of SLA has roots in various disciplines and areas of study, including the fields of child first language (L1) acquisition, linguistics, psychology, and language pedagogy. Thus, SLA has moved well beyond a one-sided focus on learner internal mechanisms, be they linguistic or cognitive. A great deal of SLA research has concentrated on differences between L1 and second language (L2) acquisition in terms of ultimate attainment. Some SLA researchers argue that learning is based on experience of language usage. More recent SLA research conducted within a cognitivist approach has been designed to provide online measures of processing and interpretation of the L2 and has thus shifted somewhat away from the analysis of naturalistic corpora.

The goal of this thesis is to explore how foreign language learning can be facilitated through the use of intelligent computer-assisted language learning (ICALL) based on natural language processing (NLP) methods. ICALL was provided in the form of a task-based dialog system that gives corrective feedback.We investigated how different parameters of the interaction affect the learning progress. Based on a comprehensive review of existing comparable ICALL applications and the underlying methods and technology, we selected parameters linked to the sophistication and effort required to implement a particular form of interaction and related them to parameters that are based on twomuch debated issues from the field of second language acquisition (SLA). One is the debate that pits form against meaning and leads to a discussion of the extent to which language instruction should focus on linguistic forms and formal correctness as opposed to emphasizing communicative skills and the ability to use the language to make meaning in the real world. Related to that is the second controversial issue which concerns the dichotomy between implicit and explicit knowledge, learning and instruction: How explicit or implicit should instruction be, how does the degree of explicitness affect the development of explicit and implicit knowledge, and how do these two types of knowledge contribute to language skills? These two general issues are condensed into three different experimental conditions, that differ with regard to how much they constrain the learner input and how explicit the feedback is. More precisely, we compare strictly form-focused activities where the learner input is constrained to supply a grammatical target form with generally unconstrained participation in a meaning-oriented task-based dialog. For the latter, we further compare recast and metalinguistic feedback as implicit and explicit types of feedback respectively. The findings of this study indicate that there are small differences in the language skill development afforded by different types of computer-provided instruction. We find that constrained, explicit form-oriented instruction yields in general greater immediate learning gains, while the free, more implicit and meaning-oriented instruction yields more delayed effects. Similarly, comparing implicit recast feedback with explicit metalinguistic feedback we find that the immediate effects are on par but recast feedback leads to greater delayed effects. These differences interact considerably with other parameters of the experimental setting, in particular with the selected target structures. This suggests that the effectiveness of certain types of instruction is highly dependent on the particular content and goal of the instruction. By using current SLA issues as motivation and guide to develop an ICALL system and an experimental framework this work contributes to the yet small field of existing research and development which integrates ICALL and SLA perspectives.

In this chapter, we highlight Bill VanPatten’s numerous contributions to the fields of second language acquisition (SLA) and instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), and to the language teaching profession. We begin with an overview of his major professional achievements, followed by an exploration of his early work and the origins of his model of input processing. We underscore the significant contribution that his model of input processing makes to theory building in SLA and subsequently discuss his pioneering instructional innovation, processing instruction, along with the prolific body of research it has inspired. After briefly noting the importance of his work on acquisition and processing more broadly, we conclude with an overview of the individual chapters included in the volume.

Although the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has largely advanced over the last few decades, the area of second language (L2) phonology has not been a focus of many studies. Major (1998) found that “of the nearly 200 articles published in Studies in SLA [from 1988 to 1998], only about a dozen focused on phonetics and phonology” (p. 131). Since then, the area has largely expanded, as discussed in Eckman (2004), evolving from studies that cited first language (L1) influence as a main explanation for L2 phonology to research that has turned to universal principles driven by Universal Grammar (UG). Several crosslinguistic speech perception models have been developed as well, and many empirical studies have been undertaken to yield support. One of the most fertile domains for the investigation of L2 phonology has been the syllable (Eckman, 2004, p. 527). However, most of the studies have concentrated on the onset or the coda, while there is much yet to be explored for the acquisition of the nucleus of the syllable – the vowel. This paper is a literature review of the emerging area of L2 phonology, focusing on the perception of English vowels by adult L2 learners.

This theoretical article sets a goal to investigate how task-based needs analysis (TBNA) as part of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) may mediate between constructs and concepts in second language acquisition (SLA) and task-based design. It is claimed that as an instantiation of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), TBNA in task-based language teaching (TBLT) may bring together decision-making during task design and what is known about SLA products and processes. The article then explores some of the key SLA concepts in ISLA around the constructs of input, intake, knowledge, and output and relates them to task-based research. Thirdly, TBNA is defined and analyzed in terms of how it may inform task and syllabus design. Finally, SLA constructs are directly associated with pedagogic task design that springs from TBNA. After a close inspection of all dimensions of TBNA, the article concludes that task design based on detailed TBNA has indeed the potential to bring reality into instruction through thorough task descriptions and methods, as well as to trigger well-known and specific processes that bring SLA and language education closer.