Understanding what drives the coaching working alliance: A systematic literature review and meta-analytic examination

Abstract

Research in coaching has confirmed the working alliance between clients and coaches to be a key factor for coaching outcomes, such as clients’ goal attainment and preventing negative effects. However, surprisingly little is known about which factors contribute to establishing working alliances. We conducted a systematic literature review to investigate which factors influence the working alliance between clients and coaches. We included studies when they pertained to individual and work-related coaching, reported quantifiable data and potential antecedents referred to the client, the coach, or both. Wherever possible, we also analysed relationships by meta-analytical means. We identified 21 samples in 18 studies in our literature review. As suggested by social exchange theory, we identified factors that focus on clients (e.g. change motivation), coaches (e.g. perceived competence), and the client-coach dyad (e.g. similarity). The number of studies allowed us to examine clients’ change motivation and coaches’ perceived competence by meta-analytical means, which revealed medium-sized effect sizes (for change motivation: r=.37, p<.001, k=8; perceived competence: r=.42, p<.001, k=4). Coaches’ experience was not significantly related to working alliance, r=.10, p=.22, k=4). Personality and personality similarity appear unrelated to working alliance, whereas behavioural similarity was identified as an antecedent. Both coaches and clients contribute to establishing working alliances. Clients’ motivation and coaches’ perceived competence rank among the most promising antecedents for establishing a working alliance in coaching. Several coach behaviours have been suggested in relation to working alliance. These results contribute to a better understanding of the factors that are related to the working alliance in coaching, which may also help coaches to reflect on and improve in their practice. In particular, more behaviour-oriented studies are needed in pursuing the driving factors in coaching working alliances.