Understanding the terrible twos: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of early executive function and parent-child interactions.

Claire Hughes,Judi Mesman,Rory T Devine,Clancy Blair

doi:10.1111/desc.12979

Abstract

Impairments in both executive function and parent-child interactions are associated with child externalizing behavior, but few studies have tested the uniqueness of these associations in the first years of life. Addressing these gaps, the current study involved an international sample (N=438; 218 boys) who, at 14 and 24months, completed an innovative battery of executive function tasks and were filmed at home in dyadic interaction with their mothers, enabling detailed observational ratings of maternal support. In addition, parents rated infant temperament at 4months and externalizing behavior at 14 and 24months. Cross-lagged longitudinal analysis showed a unidirectional developmental association between executive function at 14months and externalizing behavior at 24months. In addition, infant negative affect moderated the inverse association between maternal support at 14months and externalizing behavior at 24months. The benefits of maternal support were only evident for children with low levels of negative affect in infancy. We discuss this finding in relation to theoretical models that highlight child effects (e.g. models of vantage sensitivity).

Highlights

IntroductionAs implied by the phrase ‘terrible twos’, externalizing behaviors (e.g. temper tantrums, physical aggression, and frequent noncompliance) are common in toddlerhood but become less common in the preschool years (Alink et al, 2006)
As implied by the phrase ‘terrible twos’, externalizing behaviors are common in toddlerhood but become less common in the preschool years (Alink et al, 2006)
Funding information Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, Grant/ Award Number: 464-13-141; Economic and Social Research Council, Grant/Award Number: ES/L016648/1; National Science Foundation, Grant/Award Number: 1429152. Impairments in both executive function and parent–child interactions are associated with child externalizing behavior, but few studies have tested the uniqueness of these associations in the first years of life

Summary

Introduction

As implied by the phrase ‘terrible twos’, externalizing behaviors (e.g. temper tantrums, physical aggression, and frequent noncompliance) are common in toddlerhood but become less common in the preschool years (Alink et al, 2006). Alongside developmental declines in the mean level of externalizing behavior in early childhood, the first years of life are characterized by the emergence of stable individual differences in externalizing. Longitudinal studies show that individual differences in externalizing behavior exhibit moderate-to-strong rank-order stability across early childhood (e.g., Campbell, Spieker, Burchinal, Poe, & NICHD ECCRN, 2006; Cote, Vaillancourt, LeBlanc, Nagin, & Tremblay, 2006; Rose, Rose, & Feldman, 1989; Smith, Calkins, Keane, Anastopoulos, & Shelton, 2004). With few exceptions, existing efforts to explain the origins of individual differences in early externalizing behavior have focused on either (a) executive function (EF)

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