Understanding the Skill Provision in Gig Economy from A Network Perspective

The New Peonage: Liberty and Precarity for Workers in the Gig Economy

Industry experts estimate that there could be over 15 million gig economy workers in India. Despite its massive potential, India’s gig economy is still at a very nascent stage. Due to the recent pandemic, many companies were forced to trim staff and hire gig workers due to uncertain market conditions. This has dispelled many reservations about the dependability and long-term viability of a gig workforce. India can emerge as one of the largest markets for flexible staffing globally. It is therefore apt that a research article traces the Indian gig economy and draws valid inferences for the human resource (HR) function. The objective of this article is to review and synthesise themes and narratives around gig economy from the perspective of people’s function. The study analyses the concepts in two phases. In phase I, we summarise the key concepts from academic research. We, further, extract the opinions of business professionals; in phase II, using text mining techniques in SPSS Modeler Text of qualitative data discussed in the Indian context is used to come up with the gig economy narrative in India. This inductive research draws inferences from secondary data available in newspapers, magazines, blogs, research journals and comments posted on social media like LinkedIn and Twitter. The findings of this article reveal how gig economy has shaped the employer–employee relationship. While doing so, we present the opportunities and challenges for the gig workers, the influence of the pandemic in fuelling the gig economy and perception of the organisations. There is more positive sentiment and optimism around the gig economy in India. The role of the managers will transform in this model, and functions like learning and development and performance management will undergo vital changes. Creating a sense of inclusion and belongingness among the gig workers will become a priority. Therefore, to become a stable employment model, there is a need to create a robust gig ecosystem where expectations of all the important stakeholders are understood and met. Implication: The union budget 2021–2022 for the first time acknowledged the gig economy and announced social security benefits for the gig workers. It is time for HR and policymakers to redesign policies and processes that will not just accommodate gig workers into the formal employment but also foster inclusion. The exhaustive review of literature provides a holistic picture of gig economy to scholars interested in the field of gig economy, psychological contract, and diversity and inclusion. Practitioners can use insights from this research study to manage, engage and retain their gig talent.

The study describes a gig economy as a free market system in which enterprises regularly use independent contractors for temporary assignments and where temporary positions are prevalent. The so-called "gig economy" considerably impacts the workplace, seen in every sector of the economy. It has had a profound impact on how people interact with one another at work and has brought about a fundamental change in the way our economic study operates as a whole. Due to the unrivaled advantages of working as a gig economy worker, the number of people who do so will continue to increase. This is because many of the most skilled people opt to work as gig economy workers full-time. Moreover, because employment opportunities in Bangladesh are pretty uncommon, and many educated individuals with degrees still need help finding work, the gig economy will be an excellent option for all people still looking for work. Even while it provides workers with several benefits, such as flexibility, employment, independence, and many more, the gig economy also has a detrimental impact on the working environment inside the firm. The research uses 104 respondents' data, which gathers information on model variables and user demographics. For the research, the study has taken five variables: employment opportunity, labor market conditions, education and skill development, economic conditions, and government regulations. The study treated the employment opportunity as a dependent variable, while the other four were treated as independent variables. The purpose of this research is to find out the current developments in the gig economy and its advantages and downsides, both internationally and in Bangladesh, which have been discussed in this article. Moreover, how it can help create employment opportunities and help the country reduce unemployment.

The world of work is changing rapidly, and concerns abound that ‘non-standard’ forms of work are challenging the social and collective dimension of work. In particular, the rapid growth of the ‘gig economy’ has brought these concerns to the forefront of the debate. For trade unions, the growth in non-standard work has long been considered problematic. However, the high degree of individualisation and lack of human contact characterising the gig economy raise profound questions about how trade unions should both organise, and represent, workers in this ‘sector’ at a time when trade union membership is in decline and there is a continuing lack of legislative support for collective bargaining. Much of the debate in the existing literature takes as its point of departure, the ‘standard’ (male) worker, and sees the rise in ‘non-standard’ work and work in the gig economy as a threat to this model. This is despite the fact that trade unions have been challenged by ‘non-standard’ work since their inception: the non-standard arrangements, which have now entered the mainstream, have long been the norm for many women workers. Yet historically, within the labour law and industrial relations literature, women and gender have rarely been the subject of discussion, although this has changed since the 1980s. In addition, much of the British literature examining the novelty of the gig economy has focussed on the scope and ability of labour law to respond to these work arrangements, and there has been less engagement with trade union responses to these ‘new’ forms of work, even though the growth in such work also creates pressure for changes in the institutions that regulate labour markets. Against this background, and in light of this book’s overarching theme, this chapter calls for a new research agenda that considers the challenges of non-standard work, and of work in the gig economy, for trade unions within the context of the ‘feminisation of work’. The geographical focus of this chapter, in this regard, is the UK. The chapter argues that trade unions are struggling to shake off their image as the representatives of white, working-class, and blue-collar men. As a result, many of the successful efforts at organising non-standard workers, including workers in the gig economy, have been undertaken by ‘non-traditional’ trade unions (and other forms of grassroots organisations). This raises the question as to whether ‘traditional’ trade unions are able to effectively respond to the rise of non-standard forms of work, and to the gig economy in particular. It is suggested that part of the difficulty for these trade unions lies in the way in which they prioritise the functions that they adopt within the labour market, and the labour law system; functions which are based on a gendered understanding of the labour market, and which in turn hamper trade union efforts to reach out to an increasingly feminised labour force. The chapter therefore suggests that a conscious conceptual shift should take place, when thinking about the purpose of trade unions, if these organisations are to respond effectively to the feminisation of work.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to provide insights into the factors affecting the tax morale of workers in the gig economy. Tax morale is defined as the willingness and motivation to comply with tax laws.Design/methodology/approachData was collected from gig economy workers through a questionnaire survey and analysed using second-generation multivariate analysis (partial least squares-structural equation modelling).FindingsThe findings reveal that while the extent of the dependency on the gig economy has a positive relationship with tax morale, the level of education has a negative relationship. However, in contrast to reflective moral attentiveness, perceptual moral attentiveness positively influence tax morale.Originality/valueAs no earlier study has examined factors affecting tax morale in the context of the gig economy, this research will be beneficial to tax authorities and policymakers. This study also offers insights into multidimensional aspects of the tax morale of those working in the gig economy.

Advances in technology and the increasing number of workers who are not constrained by traditional ways of working have fuelled gig economy activity, with several online platforms and gig workers springing up around the world. On the other hand, the problematic nature of value creation in the relationship between online platforms and gig workers has become an impediment to the sustainable growth of the gig economy. Although the gig economy business model is based on a triangular relationship consisting of platforms, gig workers and consumers, there has been limited discussion of the potential for customers to influence gig economy labour relations. Therefore, this paper identified the problematic nature of value creation in the relationship between online platforms and gig workers and theoretically integrated the possibility of active consumer intervention into this issue. This paper can highlight the hitherto unfocused relationship between gig workers and consumers and provide realistic sustainability options for existing gig economy business operations. Based on a systematic literature review, this paper proposed a conceptual framework that would incorporate four items in the consumer-worker interaction: rating systems/feedback, word of mouth, gig worker’s working condition and consumers’ moral awareness. As the result of interaction, there would be two possible outcomes: Pattern A suggests that the platform may be at risk of further deterioration, whilst Pattern B suggests that the platform’s labour practices could be improved. Finally, this paper also planned a specific research design, data collection and data analysis procedures for future research. Although this paper focuses only on on-demand (offline) through app services, which is the strongest link between customers and gig workers in the gig economy, it is one of the benchmark studies to focus on consumers in the gig economy triangular relationship. This proposed conceptual framework will contribute to the observation of the potential for consumers to improve the working conditions of gig workers in the gig economy.

Discrimination Without Discriminating? Learned Gender Inequality in the Labor Market and Gig Economy

The article aims to analyze the social protection mechanisms for employees in the gig economy, find the gaps in the legislation, and suggest innovative solutions to fulfill them. Using a thorough mixed-methods approach, the paper examines the social protection models for gig economy workers through literature research, case study analysis, comparison methods, analysis, and synthesis. The gig economy is a segment of the labor market that is defined by freelance or short-term contracts, according to the article. Employees in the gig economy lack access to health insurance, unemployment insurance, and pensions, according to the report, underscoring the pressing need to close these social security gaps. It also recommends the implementation of a portable benefits system, which enables employees to maintain their social benefits irrespective of the number of employers or projects they switch, a crucial aspect for gig workers. This paper concludes with the importance of expanding access to unemployment insurance, inclusive pension programs, and training programs as tools to address the financial instability of employees. By offering suggestions on how to reconsider social protection laws in order to better meet the requirements of workers in the gig economy, the article adds to the conversation on the social dimensions of the gig economy. This study not only contributes to the academic understanding of the dynamics of the gig economy but also provides actionable recommendations for stakeholders involved in labor market reforms.

Regulatory Challenges of Unfair Dismissal for Gig Economy Workers in the UK

This article is directed towards addressing the employment related issues encountered by female workers in the gig economy in the EU. It revolves around analysing ‘the switch’ from the traditional labour market to the platform economy. It subsequently explains, by drawing comparisons, that the issues of gender inequality in the brick and mortar world are still prevalent in world of the digital platform. In fact, new challenges have emerged which are specifically related to the gig economy. Female workers are now affected by the inherent bias of algorithms. Moreover, due to the unequivocal propagation of ‘flexibility’ which is used as a weapon to glorify the gig economy; women are even more likely to be pushed into precarious work. The other prominent issues of gender inequality like the dynamics of intersectionality, the gender pay gap and hiring policies in traditional and digital platforms are also examined. Furthermore, the existing regulatory frameworks addressing these issues are discussed with the possibility of catering to the gender inequality issues in the gig economy through policy development. The article concludes with a reflection on the need for the EU to take immediate and efficacious policy measures in respect of female workers in the gig economy.

The Gig economy refers to short term jobs, contract or freelance work and flexi timing jobs as opposed to traditional full-time labor, which has witnessed a rapid growth in the last decade across the globe. Digital platforms have largely developed a free market system where independent workers connect with the buyers of the services. The Platform or Gig economy has grown at a much faster pace than ever before from the onset of COVID-19 pandemic. Since the COVID-19 lockdown, the labor market has been affected in a drastic way and a trend towards short-term and temporary jobs has become commonplace. The Economic Survey, 2020-21 highlights the growing importance of Gig economy in India amid the pandemic-induced lockdown which has led to an immense growth in the online retail business. The employers began layoffs and instead engaged freelancers or flexi staff to bring down their overhead costs. Many studies have been conducted now on assessing the impact of the ongoing pandemic on the economy and stock markets, however, very few studies focus on the influence the pandemic had on the Gig economy. The present study attempts to fill this gap by evaluating the impact of COVID-19 on the Gig economy by assessing whether the increase in new COVID-19 cases lead to an increase in the number of gig workers in the Indian economy, or in other words, exerts a significant impact on the Indian gig economy or not.

Platform work in the gig economy has become a universal phenomenon, even more so in the socially distanced landscape of COVID-19. Characteristic of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, hundreds of thousands of on-demand workers across the globe today earn a living by performing tasks assigned to them via digital platforms. The gig economy undoubtedly offers certain appealing benefits, including work flexibility and independence. As established in part 1 of this article, platform work holds vast potential to create much-needed jobs, especially for the youth, who are facing a higher degree of job precarity than any generation before them. At the same time, though, the very structure of platform work - with a peculiar triangular contracting relationship between the parties involved -renders on-demand workers vulnerable, having to carry most of the risk. In part 2, we delve deeper into the various forms of vulnerability among on-demand workers in the gig economy, with a particular focus on developing countries such as South Africa. After a brief look at the extent to which the classification of labour could be regarded as a contributing factor to vulnerability, we draw on the International Labour Organisation (ILO) definition of vulnerability to categorise the types of vulnerability on-demand gig workers are exposed to. Four broad categories are identified, namely vulnerability relating to conditions of employment, individual and collective labour rights, dispute resolution structures, and social security protection. Each category is concretised by a brief discussion of the applicable South African statutory provisions as well as practical examples. This is followed by an overview of various international standards and recent steps taken by the ILO and the European Union to protect platform workers in the gig economy. The article concludes with proposals on how to expand the traditional idea and categories of work in an effort to afford rights and protection - and so provide decent work - to new, future-oriented types of workers in South Africa. It is argued that South Africa needs to develop a uniquely South African approach to the future of work that has on-demand workers and their vulnerabilities at its centre.

As the United States tax system continues to grapple with how to tax workers in the gig economy, it confronts a number of questions about the nature and composition of the sector as well as the tax issues confronted by its participants. Many of these questions have proven difficult to answer due to a lack of adequate information. But the answers are important and will shape how tax and other areas of law (such as employment law, labor law, and antitrust) respond to the gig economy. Thus, the question of how to obtain the data and information necessary to formulate sound policies for gig work is vital. This chapter discusses the limitations of quantitative empirical research on the gig economy and argues that incorporating more qualitative approaches will help generate a more comprehensive understanding of the tax policy issues involved. Adoption of a diverse set of research approaches is crucial because the administrative tax return and labor survey data are incomplete and are shaped by prior decisions of gig economy firms and participants. Many questions remain that such quantitative data, by its very nature, cannot answer. This chapter first identifies the key tax issues at stake in the gig economy, including tax administration, worker classification, and tax impacts on workforce decisions. It then discusses the key ways in which quantitative approaches do not fully capture the tax issues at stake. Finally, it details how qualitative research methods such as interviews and case studies can flesh out gaps in the quantitative data, can help interpret quantitative data, and can help answer questions that extend beyond the scope of quantitative data, yielding a richer account of gig economy tax issues than that provided by quantitative tax administrative and labor survey data alone.

The Importance of Qualitative Research Approaches to Gig Economy Taxation

As the global economy is moving towards remote access and shared workplaces, gig economy workers comprise the majority of the workforce. Organisations are opting for temporary professionals over training their own employees for specific skill sets. The purpose of this research is to explore the labour exploitation that occurs among taxi drivers in Sri Lanka’s gig economy. The present study addressed the research question of how labour exploitation occurs among taxi drivers in the Sri Lankan gig economy. A qualitative approach was used to understand the perceptions of taxi drivers in relation to the labour exploitation that occur sin the gig economy. Accordingly, an inductive approach was adopted in the study. A series of interviews were used as the research strategy. An interview guide was developed, and a semi-structured interview method was used to collect the data from the participants. Further, the study used ‘Netnography’ technique since it obtains data from social media posts such as Facebook. The participants were selected by utilising the purposive sampling method. The collected data was analysed using the thematic analysis technique. It was found that gig workers are considered people who cannot find permanent jobs and are exploited heavily by the platform organisations. Gig economy workers are faced with an unprecedented struggle due to long working hours, no job security, low pay packages, topped with less pay security, inhuman treatment by their employers and customers and absolutely no protection or rights. In order to build an economy that works for all people, “gig” and app-based companies cannot be allowed to exploit their workers under the guise of “innovation”. It was found that the Sri Lankan gig economy is a wolf in sheep’s clothing.
 Keywords: Gig Economy, Labour Exploitation, Digital Taylorism, Government Interventions, Job Security