Abstract
The investigation of surface structures and phenomena by such techniques as low energy electron diffraction and high energy electron diffraction has become possible in the last years thanks to the development of pumping and measuring devices able to produce and monitor vacua of the order of 10 −12 torr. At these pressures, surfaces can be kept clean for as long as a few hours; in this way it is possible to investigate clean surface structures and surface phenomena such as adsorption-desorption with a minimum of trouble due to the presence of residual gases. The problem of degassing is discussed in detail. Particular attention is paid to the problem of the generation of clean surfaces by pulsed laser bombardment, sputtering and annealing. The characterization of the degree of cleanliness of surfaces is treated and reference is made in some detail to those methods based on electromagnetic interactions of radiation with matter: Auger Electron Spectroscopy, Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA), Characteristic X-ray Spectroscopy.
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