Turning negative: micro-steps from negative polarity item to negative-word

Abstract

This paper revisits the debate as to whether n-words such as English nobody, French personne and Italian nessuno are indefinites or intrinsically negative. Intrinsic negative value is diagnozed by use in the three contexts of fragment answers, double negation and constituent negation. Are these criterial contexts involved in a predictable way through the development of future n-words? The question is answered by a detailed study of Polarity Sensitive Items (PSI) that are potentially ambiguous between n-word and negative polarity item (NPI) in four different languages (Finnish, French, American English and Italian). An ordered relation is found from negative fragment answers, that can be evoked by strong NPIs, to double negation and constituent negation, that are communicated by intrinsically negative n-words. Having identified micro-steps into n-word status, the paper demonstrates that n-words are not mere indefinites, and must have an intrinsic negative value.