Travel risk perception and travel behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020: a case study of the DACH region

This study replicates and extends the work of Reisinger and Mavondo, who explored the influence of national culture on travel risk and safety perceptions, anxiety, and travel intentions. The current study differs in that it adds gender as a key explanatory variable alone and in combination with national culture to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the influences on risk perceptions and future travel intent. Respondents (290 females and 239 males) from different nationalities (Asia, Australia, Europe, UK, US) were surveyed as to their cultural orientations, travel risk and safety perceptions, anxieties, and future intentions to travel. Female respondents perceived traveling internationally as involved higher risk, were more anxious, felt less safe, and intended to travel less internationally than male respondents regardless of their cultural orientation. However, in the male sample the long-/short-term cultural orientations of respondents were the most significant predictors of travel risk and safety perceptions. In both groups, terrorism and sociocultural risk emerged as the most significant determinants of travel anxieties and perceptions of safety. In the female group, intentions to travel internationally again were determined by anxiety, whereas in the male group they were determined by perceived safety. Implications of the study results are discussed.

The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted travel behaviours due to the need for movement restrictions. The restrictions adversely affected various aspects of health and the economy. This study aimed to investigate factors affecting trip frequency during the recovery period of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia. An online national cross-sectional survey was conducted to collect data in conjunction with different movement restriction policies. The questionnaire includes socio-demographics, experience with COVID-19, risk perception of COVID-19, and trip frequency on several activities during the pandemic. Mann Whitney U was conducted to determine whether there were statistically significant differences between the socio-demographic factors for the respondents in the first and second surveys. Results show no significant difference in socio-demographic factors except for the level of education. The results indicate that the respondents from both surveys were comparable. Next, Spearman correlation analyses were conducted to find significant correlations between trip frequencies toward socio-demographics, experience with COVID-19 and risk perception. There was a correlation between the frequency of travel and risk perception for both surveys. Regression analyses were performed based on the findings to investigate trip frequency determinants during the pandemic. Perceived risk, gender, and occupation influenced the trip frequencies for both surveys. By understanding the influence of risk perception on the frequency of travel, the government can identify the appropriate policy during a pandemic or health emergency to avoid impeding normal travel behaviour. Thus, people's mental and psychological well-being are not negatively affected.

This study investigates the Covid-19 pandemic effect on Ilocano tourists' travel risk and management perceptions. The study participants were Ilocanos residing at Ilocos Norte, and they were chosen using a sample size of 384 respondents. This study explores Ilocano tourists' travel risk and management perceptions and their influence on society in the context of the pandemic's effects. The data was obtained through an online survey utilizing google forms and shared through Messenger, using a proportional stratified sampling technique, and analyzed using the WarpPLS-SEM version 7.0 tool. The study employed a descriptive-causal research approach and quantitative research design to measure the Covid-19 pandemic effect on Ilocano tourists' travel risk and management perceptions. The data indicated that it significantly impacts Ilocano tourists' travel risk and management perceptions. Travel risk and management perception are significantly associated with risk management, service delivery, transportation patterns, distribution channels, avoidance of overpopulated locations, and hygiene and safety. The findings also revealed the effect of travel risk and management perceptions. The study's findings contribute to the province of Ilocos Norte's tourism dilemma. It gives future study insights into the travel and tourism industry and responses to changing tourists' travel risk and management perceptions in the gradually accepted new normal period.

Considering the coronavirus risk, the purpose of the study is to reveal the group differences in travel risk perception, travel behaviour and behavioural intention in terms of the tourists’ sociodemographic characteristics – gender, age and past travel experience. A convenience sampling was used and members of the eligible travel groups on social media platforms were invited to respond to an online survey. A total of 160 responses were obtained from Turkey in January 2021. Exploratory factor analysis, independent samples t-tests and cross-tabulation analysis were performed to analyse the data. This study determined the differences in the risk perception of coronavirus, travel behaviour and travel intention of tourists in terms of gender and age of tourists. Although it is known that the higher the experience, the lower the risk perception, the study showed no differences associated with the past travel experience. This supposes that all tourists, regardless of their past experience, perceived the coronavirus risk in the same way as its influence has been tremendous globally. Consequently, tourism professionals should attract target markets at the appropriate time with compatible strategies regarding the sociodemographic factors.

This article explores the relationship between national culture and perceived travel risk, safety, anxiety, and travel intentions. Two hundred forty-six Australian and 336 foreign respondents were surveyed as to their cultural orientation, travel risk and safety perception, anxiety, and intentions to travel. The results of path analysis show that the uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivism and, in particular, long/short-term cultural orientations are the most significant predictors of travel risk and safety perceptions in both samples. The terrorism and sociocultural risk emerged as the most significant determinants of travel anxiety and safety. Anxiety and level of perceived safety determined intentions to travel internationally. Implications of the study results are discussed.

Introduction. This empirical study investigates the outbound travel preferences, risk perception, and behavior of Free Independent Travelers (FITs), specifically focusing on the post-endemic perspective. Material and Methods. Data were collected from 345 respondents using a purposive sampling method. The data were analyzed using Partial-least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) through SmartPLS 4.0 software. Results. Contrary to much existing literature, the study revealed that perceived threat and transmission risks did not negatively impact FITs’ travel intentions. Instead, both risk perceptions positively influenced travel attitudes, likely due to post-pandemic factors such as government mitigation measures and high vaccination rates. Additionally, FITs’ travel intentions were significantly influenced by their attitudes and perceived behavioral control. Conclusions. The study contributes to the emerging discourse on post-pandemic travel behaviors by challenging traditional assumptions about the role of risk perception in shaping travel decisions. It shows that perceived risks do not deter FITs’ travel intentions post-pandemic. Instead, these risks positively influence travel attitudes, highlighting the role of mitigation measures and vaccination rates, and offering fresh perspectives on travel behavior in a post-endemic world.

Without a doubt, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a tremendous impact on global tourism for at least two reasons: (1) imposed systematic travel restrictions that discourage people from traveling even though they would like to; and (2) increased travel anxiety due to the perceived risk of the COVID-19 virus, causing people to change their typical travel behavior. This study aims to explore the role of Covid-19 in shaping future travel behavior. More specifically, following the general model of vacation behavior and the role of risk in travel behavior, we investigate how COVID-19 influences travelers’ perceptions of risk and how this affects planned vacation behavior. The results show that COVID-19 risk perception per se influences typical forms of vacation behavior, but this risk also leads to the development of travel anxiety, which additionally influences only some forms of vacation behavior. Empirical findings show that general anxiety, which is not associated with Covid-19 risk perception, also predicts some forms of planned changes in vacation behaviour. The study concludes with recommendations on how to reduce traveler uncertainty in order to recover international leisure travel.

During the Covid-19 pandemic, individual and collective public health measures were undertaken to control the spread of the virus. Their effectiveness relies on people’s abilities to understand and adopt the correct behaviors. This study aims to evaluate the role of Health Literacy (HL) in influencing the adherence to Covid-19 preventive measures and risk perception of a sample of workers employed in various activities involving close contact with the population in the province of Prato (Tuscany, Italy) in the second pandemic wave (November-December 2020). A cross-sectional survey was conducted on a sample of public workers (e.g., teachers, educators, assistants/aides, other health personnel). Data on knowledge, attitudes and practices towards (KAP) Covid-19 preventive measures and risk perception were collected. HL was measured with the HLS-EU-Q6 tool. Spearman correlation analysis was used to assess the correlation between HL and KAP and Covid-19 risk perception. Multivariate linear regression analyses were performed to evaluate the role of HL in predicting KAP and Covid-19 risk perception, adjusted for sex, age, comorbidity, educational level, country of birth. A total of 402 people participated in this study; 47.8% had a problematic HL level. The HL level was correlated with KAP and practices towards Covid-19 prevention measures; no significant associations were found with Covid-19 risk perception. In multivariate models, HL significantly and positively predicted a higher level of knowledge of Covid-19 preventive measures (B = 0.413 for problematic HL; B = 0.542 for sufficient HL). Confirming a previous study conducted in Prato in the first pandemic wave, HL did not predict adherence to Covid-19 infection control measures, probably due to fear of the disease and attention towards prevention behaviors being still higher in the second pandemic wave. Key messages • HL skills are linked to understanding of public health measures. • HL skills should be improved to favor the adherence to correct behaviors.

Perceptions of travel-related health risks and pre-travel health-seeking behaviour among students: A qualitative analysis

This study investigates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on travel risk perceptions and shopping habits among individuals in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The study's primary objectives are to analyze changes in travel risk perceptions and to examine shifts in travel behaviors and shopping patterns during and after the pandemic. A comprehensive survey was conducted, gathering data on socioeconomic demographics, travel risk perceptions, and shopping habits across three periods: pre-pandemic, during, and post-pandemic. The survey included a diverse and representative sample of UAE residents, covering various demographic factors such as gender, age, residency status, and emirate of residence. Data cleaning and pre-processing were employed to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. Descriptive analysis and statistical tests such as the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed significant changes in perceptions and behaviors across the three periods. The findings indicate a notable decrease in travel risk perceptions post-pandemic, particularly concerning personal modes of transportation, including private vehicles, walking, and cycling, which were perceived as safer due to their ability to limit exposure. However, public transportation continued to evoke discomfort, reflecting ongoing concerns about virus transmission in crowded environments. The study also highlights changes in shopping behaviors, with a decline in in-person food and grocery shopping during the pandemic, as many individuals shifted towards online grocery delivery services for safety and convenience. Similarly, there was a reduction in in-person shopping for non-food items, accompanied by a significant increase in online shopping, indicating a broader shift towards e-commerce. Overall, these findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, businesses, and researchers, offering a deeper understanding of the lasting impacts of the pandemic on consumer behavior. The study underscores the need for strategies that address individuals' evolving needs and concerns in the post-pandemic era, promoting resilience and adaptability in both the travel and retail sectors.

Focusing on travel risk perception, behavioural intention, and travel behaviour, the study investigated the impact of COVID-19 vaccines on travellers and examined whether the vaccination will allow individuals to travel more psychologically. The data were solicited from 485 outbound travellers. The research hypotheses were tested through partial least squares-structural equation modeling. It is concluded that vaccination has an impact on the risk perception, behavioural intention, and travel behaviour of travellers. COVID-19 vaccines decrease the pandemic risk perception and relieve travellers who find traveling unfavourable during this period. Behavioural intention and travel behaviour also increase after vaccinated. The study also revealed that travellers would prefer countries with a high COVID-19 vaccination rate.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a dramatic loss of human lives worldwide and presented an unprecedented challenge to public health, tourism and community relations. Previous research on the relationship between xenophobia and travel behavior is limited, especially in the context of concerns over potential contagion. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between xenophobia and travel behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic in a sample of 489 Iranian travelers participated in survey conducted online. The results demonstrated that xenophobia positively correlates with the fear of COVID-19, travel risk perception, untact tourism, and travel precautions, although it is negatively correlated with the intention to undertake outbound and domestic travel. The relationships between push and pull factors to xenophobia were found insignificant. Interestingly, a significant difference between genders in the relationship between travel risk perception and xenophobia was identified. The study presents significant theoretical and practical implications and offers new avenues for future research.

The interesting scenario involving COVID-19's breakout in multiple nations is still serious in many areas of the world. This perceived risk can significantly increase compliance with COVID-19 prevention behaviors during the next pandemic. The purpose of this study was to explore how people perceive COVID-19 risk, disease severity, and COVID-19 prevention in Samut Songkhram province, Thailand. A study examined the relationship between people's perceptions of risk, COVID-19 severity, and COVID-19 prevention activity. The COVID-19 issue was the subject of this cross-sectional investigation, using a Geographic Information System. A cross-sectional study on perception of COVID-19 risk, disease severity, and COVID-19 prevention. Explore the relationship between the people's perception of COVID-19 risk, disease severity, and COVID-19 prevention behaviors. Descriptive statistics, such as frequency distribution methods, mean, standard deviation. Analytical statistics, such as correlation and multiple regression, were used to analyze the data. This study found that the female to male ratio is around 1:2. The age group with the most representation was 15-26 years old. The results showed that people's perception of COVID-19 risk had no relationship to COVID-19 preventive behaviors. People's perception of COVID-19 severity was shown to be significantly associated with COVID-19 prevention behaviors at 0.001. The multiple regression equation to estimate COVID-19 prevention behaviors in a new epidemic; P (the COVID-19 prevention) = 4.344 – 0.115 Female(X1) + 0.141 Farmer(X2) +0.356 Trading(X3) + 0.733 Traveled to an endemic area(X4) + 0.253 Age, 28-36 years(X5) – 0.546 Age, 37-46 years(X6) + 0.317 Age, 47-56 years(X7) + 0.151 Age, >56 years(X8) + 0.318 The perception of COVID-19 severity(X9) – 0.092 The perceptions of COVID-19 risk(X10). The results of this study will be used to establish an intervention model for encouraging and establishing effective COVID-19 preventive practices, as well as maintaining and continuing them.

After two years of the COVID-19 pandemic, research on travel risk perception has been dominated by the study of health risks as a significant factor that influences tourists’ purchase behavior toward tourism and hospitality products, such as accommodation selection. However, research on other travel-risk-related factors remains limited. This study aimed to fill this gap in the literature. Through exploratory factor analysis, the study explored various risk perception factors toward staying in tourist accommodation among tourists during the easing of travel restrictions in Indonesia. Through a survey of 411 foreign and domestic tourists, the study identified 22 risk items and categorized the items into the following 5 dimensions of risk perception: potential loss risk (six items, 39.9% variance), psychological risk (five items, 9.1% variance), health risk (four items, 5.7% variance), social risk (three items, 5.3% variance), and financial risk (four items, 4.7% variance). This study is one of the few studies on risk perception that proposes a multi-dimensional approach rather than a single-dimension approach to risk perception in the hospitality context. These findings may enhance the literature on travel risk perception amidst the crisis and contribute to tourism recovery strategies in the post-pandemic era.

ResumenImpactos percibidos del COVID-19 y la evitación del viaje: Una aplicación de la teoría de la motivación de protecciónObjetivoLa pandemia de COVID-19 y el comportamiento de los viajeros hacia el riesgo del viaje es un asunto emergente. No obstante, los impactos percibidos de COVID-19 por los viajeros, la percepción del riesgo de viaje, la percepción de salud y seguridad, así como la evitación de viajes con respecto a la teoría de la motivación de protección es desapercibida. Por lo tanto, el estudio actual basado en la teoría de la motivación de protección investiga las relaciones directas e indirectas entre los impactos percibidos del COVID-19 y la evitación del viaje. Las percepciones cognitivas del riesgo de los individuos varían con sus características demográficas; por lo tanto, el estudio actual que utiliza un análisis de multigrupo prueba las diferencias en las estimaciones de los parámetros de grupo específico.MetodologíaNos acercamos a los viajeros de Tianjin, China, utilizando diferentes servicios de comunicación, incluidos WeChat y email, a través de una técnica de muestreo de bola de nieve. El estudio utilizó 553 cuestionarios válidos para el análisis.HallazgosLos resultados empíricos de los 533 cuestionarios en los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (MES) indican que los impactos percibidos de Covid-19 se correlacionan positivamente con la evitación del viaje. El resultado implica que los encuestados primero evalúan los riesgos y luego toman las decisiones de viajar; por consiguiente, los hallazgos apoyaron la teoría de la motivación de protección. Los hallazgos también mostraron que la percepción del riesgo de viaje y la percepción de salud y seguridad median entre los impactos percibidos de Covid-19 y la evitación de viajes. Además, los resultados del análisis de multigrupo indican que para el género y la educación, no existe una diferencia; sin embargo, en cuanto a la edad, existe una diferencia significativa en la percepción.Implicaciones practicesLas implicaciones del estudio son importantes para que los legisladores y la industria del turismo comprendan la percepción de los viajeros durante la pandemia y garanticen las medidas de salud y seguridad para animar a viajar.OriginalidadLa aplicación de la teoría de la motivación de protección para analizar los impactos percibidos de COVID-19 por los viajeros y la evitación del viaje en la presencia de la percepción de riesgo de viaje y la percepción de salud y seguridad como variables mediadoras es novedosa. También, el estudio actual contribuye a la literatura a través de probar el modelo teórico sobre las características demográficas de los encuestados.