Trauma, Adaptation, and Resilience: A Cross-Cultural and Evolutionary Perspective

Abstract

Trauma and its consequences are a focus of intense interest. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), although not a new diagnosis – “war psychosis” and “shell shock” were long recognized – has recently been applied to a very wide range of negative experiences (Jones et al., 2003; Jones & Wessely, 2004; McHugh, 1999; A. Young, 1995). The definition has broadened beyond extremely severe and abnormal circumstances, such as war, rape, or devastating natural disasters, to encompass stresses in normal life – ongoing aspects of work and relationships and childhood emotional stress in the range that might once have been considered normal. Although physical, sexual, and severe emotional abuse – not to mention torture and concentration-camp experiences – surely deserve this label, the word trauma is no longer restricted to such extremes. In the popular imagination and for some mental health professionals, it means far more – including residence in the city where a terrorist attack has occurred or viewing traumas on the television news – and we often hear recommendations for immediate psychological intervention. In fact, extensive evidence shows that resilience and/or independent recovery are by far the most common responses to potentially traumatic experiences (PTEs) in both adults (Bonanno, 2004, 2005) and children (Masten, 2001). Furthermore, research and clinical experience question the value of and point to the possible harm due to widely urged mental health interventions following PTEs (Rose, Bisson, Churchill, & Wessely, 2002; Rose, Bisson, & Wessely, 2003; Wessely, 2005; Wessely & Deahl, 2003).