Abstract
P arkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most frequent neurodegenerative disorders that despite several options for drug treatment leaves patients severely handicapped after several years of drug treatment. Therefore, alternative therapies are strongly warranted that very likely will include regenerative strategies. First promising approaches to restore damaged neurons in PD employed dopaminergic neurons taken from human fetuses, which were transplanted into the dopamine depleted striatum of PD patients. However, tissue availability, ethical concerns regarding the use of tissue from aborted human fetuses, as well as limited safety and quality control of such tissue have raised concerns regarding these experimental therapies. In addition, controlled clinical trials failed to prove efficacy. Subsequently, most clinical trials using primary fetal tissue were abandoned. During the past decade, there were tremendous efforts to generate dopaminergic neurons from various stem or progenitor cells, including embryonic stem cells (ESCs), neural stem cells (NSCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSs), and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). On the
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