Abstract
AbstractWe hypothesize that transparent exopolymer particles (TEP), present in high concentrations in most sea and freshwaters, are critical agents for biofilm initiation and development in many natural and anthropogenic aquatic environments. These gel-like particles appear in many forms; amorphous blobs, clouds, sheets, filaments or clumps ranging in size from ~2 to ~200 µm. TEP are mostly polysaccharide, negatively charged, very sticky and are frequently colonized by bacteria. TEP may be considered a "planktonic" subgroup of exopolymeric substances (EPS), widely studied in biofilm research. Recognition of TEP involvement in biofilm formation has important implications for a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of this process in aquatic environments and may also contribute to the considerable efforts being made in the global water industry to mitigate the harmful effects of biofouling in water treatment and desalination plants.
Highlights
In this paper we propose the concept that transparent exopolymer particles (TEP), ubiquitous in large numbers in both marine and freshwaters (Passow (2002), are an important but hitherto overlooked factor for the development of biofilms, both in natural and anthropogenic environments
This contrasts to the polysaccharide-containing biofilm matrix that adheres to substrate surfaces; TEP may be considered a "planktonic" subgroup of EPS [exopolymeric substances]
TEP may be formed at senescence by algae and cyanobacteria (Grossart et al 1997, Berman & Viner-Mozzini 2001, Berman-Frank et al 2007) TEP have been termed “macrogels”, and constitute a significant portion of the gel phase that forms an intermediate stage in the dissolved organic matter (DOM) to particulate organic matter (POM) continuum in seawater and freshwaters (Verdugo et al 2004)
Summary
In 1993 Alldredge et al reported a high abundance of previously undetected, transparent micro-particles in seawater that were visualized by staining with Alcian Blue, a dye specific for acid mucopolysaccharides These were dubbed “Transparent Exopolymer Particles” or TEP. Because TEP are rich in surface active acidic polysaccharides , many other substances, including proteins or trace elements can be associated with these gel-like particles. They adsorb trace metals (Niven et al 1977, Santschi et al 2006) and dissolved organic materials, providing favorable and specialized sites (e.g. low oxygen or anaerobic environments) for bacterial development. A comprehensive review of TEP in natural aquatic environments was published by Passow (2002)
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