Abstract
Background: Thus far, most researchers on genocide and transgenerational transmissions have focused on the National Socialist Holocaust as the most abhorrent example of this severe human rights violation. Few data have been published on other ethnic or religious groups affected by genocidal actions in this context. Methodology: Using a mixed-method approach integrating qualitative interviews with standardized instruments (SCID and PDS), this study examines how individual and collective trauma have been handed down across three generations in an Alevi Kurd community whose members (have) suffered genocidal perpetrations over a longer time period (a “genocidal environment”). Qualitative, open-ended interviews with members of three generations answering questions yielded information on (a) how their lives are shaped by the genocidal experiences from the previous generation and related victim experiences, (b) how the genocidal events were communicated in family narratives, and (c) coping strategies used. The first generation is the generation which directly suffered the genocidal actions. The second generation consists of children of those parents who survived the genocidal actions. Together with their family (children, partner, relatives), this generation suffered forced displacement. Members of the third generation were born in the diaspora where they also grew up. Results: Participants reported traumatic memories, presented in examples in this publication. The most severe traumatic memories included the Dersim massacre in 1937–1938 in Turkey, with 70,000–80,000 victims killed, and the enforced resettlement in western Turkey. A content analysis revealed that the transgenerational transmission of trauma continued across three generations. SCID and PDS data indicated high rates of distress in all generations. Conclusions: Genocidal environments such as that of the Kurdish Alevis lead to transgenerational transmission mediated by complex factors.
Highlights
Extreme violence and human rights violations remain a common or even increasing challenge in many countries and are followed by a massive impact on group and individual mental health [1]
The findings suggest that older generations affect the psychological well-being of subsequent generations in different ways by passing on traumatic experiences to subsequent generations
The impact on subsequent generations can manifest itself in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms
Summary
Extreme violence and human rights violations remain a common or even increasing challenge in many countries and are followed by a massive impact on group and individual mental health [1]. Trauma can be understood as the effect of an overwhelming and extraordinary experience that leaves its victim feeling helpless [2]. This feeling of powerlessness can manifest itself in several or all realms of life and functioning of a person who has been traumatized, namely, general self-efficacy, the ability to cope with stressful events, and the ability to build or maintain close personal relationships. Symptoms observed after exposure to extreme violence such as concentration.
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