Abstract
Recently environmental conditions during early parental development have been found to have transgenerational effects on immunity and other condition-dependent traits. However, potential transgenerational effects of heavy metal pollution have not previously been studied. Here we show that direct exposure to heavy metal (copper) upregulates the immune system of the blow fly, Protophormia terraenovae, reared in copper contaminated food. In the second experiment, to test transgenerational effects of heavy metal, the parental generation of the P. terraenovae was reared in food supplemented with copper, and the immunocompetence of their offspring, reared on uncontaminated food, was measured. Copper concentration used in this study was, in the preliminary test, found to have no effect on mortality of the flies. Immunity was tested on the imago stage by measuring encapsulation response against an artificial antigen, nylon monofilament. We found that exposure to copper during the parental development stages through the larval diet resulted in immune responses that were still apparent in the next generation that was not exposed to the heavy metal. We found that individuals reared on copper-contaminated food developed more slowly compared with those reared on uncontaminated food. The treatment groups did not differ in their dry body mass. However, parental exposure to copper did not have an effect on the development time or body mass of their offspring. Our study suggests that heavy metal pollution has positive feedback effect on encapsulation response through generations which multiplies the harmful effects of heavy metal pollution in following generations.
Highlights
Heavy metals are known to transfer from soil to plants and from plants to herbivores
We show that exposure to copper during early parental development stages has an effect on offspring innate immunity in the blow fly, P. terraenovae (Diptera)
Previous findings on a variety of Mollusca species indicate that the intensifying effect of copper on immune response might result from an increase in the number of hemocytes [34] or granulocytes [35,36]
Summary
Heavy metals are known to transfer from soil to plants and from plants to herbivores. In polluted areas such as in the vicinity of metal industry, heavy metal pollution has been found to accumulate in plants and various invertebrates [1,2,3]. Several studies have documented the disadvantageous effects of heavy metal pollution on different traits. High concentrations of heavy metals are known to have an effect on survival [8], reproductive success [8], longevity and fecundity [5]. Even though the direct adverse effects of heavy metal pollution on invertebrates are quite well understood, studies testing transgenerational effects of parental exposure to heavy metal pollution on offspring immunity are so far lacking
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